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西遼[View] [Edit] [History]ctext:154711
Relation | Target | Textual basis |
---|---|---|
type | dynasty | |
name | 西遼 | default |
authority-wikidata | Q862304 | |
link-wikipedia_zh | 西辽 | |
link-wikipedia_en | Qara_Khitai |
Read more...: Names History Founding of the Qara Khitai Yelü Dashis successors Kuchlugs usurpation and end of the Khanate Aftermath Administration Association with China Legacy Seals Sovereigns of Qara Khitai Gallery
Names
The Qara Khitai took on trappings of a Chinese state and inherited the dynastic name "Great Liao" (大遼). Hence, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese historians generally refer to the empire as the "Western Liao" (西遼), emphasizing its continuation from the Liao dynasty.
The name "Qara Khitai" (喀喇契丹; commonly used by Central Asian tribes to refer to the dynasty) is also commonly used in Western scholarly works. The phrase is often translated as the Black Khitans in Turkish, but its original meaning is unclear today. In Mongolian, "Kara-Khitan" is rendered "Хар Хятан" (Khar Kidan). Since no direct records from the empire survive today, the only surviving historical records about the empire come from foreign sources.
Black Khitans (黑契丹) has also been seen used in Chinese. "Qara," which literally means "black," corresponds with the Liao's dynastic color black and its dynastic element Water, according to the theory of Five Elements (wuxing). The Jurchens referred to the empire as Dashi or Dashi Linya (after its founder), to reduce any claims the empire may have had to the old territories of the Liao dynasty. Muslim historians initially referred to the state simply as Khitay or Khitai; they may have adopted this form of "Khitan" via the Uyghurs of Kocho in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y. Only after the Mongol conquest did the state begin to be referred to in the Muslim world as the Kara-Khitai or Qara-Khitai. Qara Khitai or Khitan is the origin of "Cathay", a foreign name for China.
History
Founding of the Qara Khitai
The Qara Khitai empire was established by Yelü Dashi, who led nomadic Khitans west by way of Mongolia after the collapse of the Liao dynasty. The Jurchens, once vassals of the Khitans, had allied with the Song dynasty and overthrown the Liao. Yelü recruited Khitans and other tribes to form an army, and in 1134 captured Balasagun from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which marks the start of the Qara Khitai empire in Central Asia. The Khitan forces were soon joined by 10,000 Khitans, who had been subjects of the Kara-Khanid Khanate. The Khitans then conquered Kashgar, Khotan, and Beshbalik. The Khitans defeated the Western Kara-Khanid Khanate at Khujand in 1137, eventually leading to their control over the Fergana Valley. They won the Battle of Qatwan against the Western Kara-Khanids and the Seljuk Empire on September 9, 1141, which allowed the Khitans to gain control over Transoxiana.
Yelü Dashi had originally hoped to recapture northern China from the Jin dynasty and restore the territories once held by the Liao dynasty. However, he soon discovered the relative weakness of his empire vis-a-vis the Jin dynasty and gave up the idea after a disastrous attack on the Jin dynasty in 1134. The Western Liao continued to defy Jin supremacy in 1146, and continued sending scouts and small military units against the Jin in 1156, 1177, 1185, 1188. This indicates that for the first 2 generations there remained considerable interest in reconquest.
Yelü Dashis successors
When Yelü Dashi died his wife, Xiao Tabuyan (1143-1150) became regent for their son. The son, Yelü Yilie, ruled from 1150 to 1163, to be succeeded by his sister, Yelü Pusuwan (1164-1177). She then fell in love with her husband's younger brother, Xiao Fuguzhi. They were executed in 1177 by her husband's father, Xiao Wolila, who then placed his son Yelü Zhilugu (1178–1211) on the throne. The empire was weakened by rebellions and internal wars among its vassals, especially during the latter parts of its history.
During this period the empire contracted in the northeast when in 1175 the Naimans east of the Altai and the Qangli north of Lake Balkhash made a partial submission to the Jurchens. In the west there were many conflicts with Khwarezm involving non-payment of tribute and rival claimants to the throne. Late in the period it expanded far to the south as the Khwarezmian Empire until it was conquered by the Mongols in 1220, two years after the Qara Kitai. In the south the Kara-Khanid vassals were lightly held and engaged in various conflicts with each other, the Qara Kitai, Khwarezm and the Gurids.
Kuchlugs usurpation and end of the Khanate
In 1208, a Naiman prince, Kuchlug, fled his homeland after being defeated by Mongols. Kuchlug was welcomed into the empire of the Qara-Khitans, and was allowed to marry Zhilugu's daughter. However, in 1211, Kuchlug revolted, and later captured Yelü Zhilugu while the latter was hunting. Zhilugu was allowed to remain as the nominal ruler but died two years later, and many historians regarded his death as the end of the Qara-Khitan empire. In 1216, Genghis Khan dispatched his general Jebe to pursue Kuchlug; Kuchlug fled, but in 1218, he was finally captured and decapitated. The Mongols fully conquered the former territories of the Qara-Khitans in 1220.
Aftermath
The Qara Khitais became absorbed into the Mongol Empire; a segment of the Qara-Khitan troops had previously already joined the Mongol army fighting against Kuchlug. Another segment of the Qara-Khitans, in a dynasty founded by Buraq Hajib, survived in Kirman as a vassal of the Mongols, but ceased to exist as an entity during the reign of Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate. The Qara-Khitans were dispersed widely all over Eurasia as part of the Mongol army. In the 14th century, they began to lose their ethnic identity, traces of their presence however may be found as clan names or toponyms from Afghanistan to Moldova. Today a Khitay tribe still lives in northern Kyrgyzstan.
Administration
The Khitans ruled from their capital at Balasagun (in today's Kyrgyzstan), directly controlling the central region of the empire. The rest of their empire consisted of highly autonomous vassalized states, primarily Khwarezm, the Karluks, the Kingdom of Qocho of the Uyghurs, the Kankalis, and the Western, Eastern, and Fergana Kara-Khanids. The late-arriving Naimans also became vassals, before usurping the empire under Kuchlug.
The Khitan rulers adopted many administrative elements from the Liao dynasty, including the use of Confucian administration and imperial trappings. The empire also adopted the title of Gurkhan (universal Khan). The Khitans used the Chinese calendar, maintained Chinese imperial and administrative titles, gave its emperors reign names, used Chinese-styled coins, and sent imperial seals to its vassals. Although most of its administrative titles were derived from Chinese, the empire also adopted local administrative titles, such as tayangyu (Turkic) and vizier.
The Khitans maintained their old customs, even in Central Asia. They remained nomads, adhered to their traditional dress, and maintained the religious practices followed by the Liao dynasty Khitans. The ruling elite tried to maintain the traditional marriages between the Yelü king clan and the Xiao queen clan, and were highly reluctant to allow their princesses to marry outsiders. The Qara-Khitai Khitans followed a mix of Buddhism and traditional Khitan religion, which included fire worship and tribal customs, such as the tradition of sacrificing a gray ox with a white horse. In an innovation unique to the Qara Khitai, the Khitans paid their soldiers salary.
The empire ruled over a diverse population that was quite different from its rulers. The majority of the population was sedentary, although the population suddenly became more nomadic during the end of the empire, due to the influx of Naimans. The majority of their subjects were Muslims, although a significant minority practiced Buddhism and Nestorianism. Although Chinese and Khitan were the primary languages of administration, the empire also administered in Persian and Uyghur.
Association with China
In Chinese historiography, the Qara Khitai is most commonly called the "Western Liao" (西遼) and is considered to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty, as is the case for the Liao dynasty. The history of the Qara Khitai was included in the History of Liao (one of the Twenty-Four Histories), which was compiled officially during the Yuan dynasty by Toqto'a et al.
After the Tang dynasty, non-Han Chinese empires gained prestige by connecting themselves with China, and the Khitan Gurkans used the title of "Chinese emperor", and was also called the "Khan of Chīn". The Qara Khitai used the "image of China" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's "five great kings". Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelein, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam. Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai. These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty, and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.
Qara Khitai's rule over the Muslim-majority Central Asia has the effect of reinforcing the view among some Muslim writers that Central Asia was linked to China even though the Tang dynasty had lost control of the region a few hundred years ago. Marwazī wrote that Transoxania was a former part of China, while Fakhr al-Dīn Mubārak Shāh defined China as part of "Turkestan", and the cities of Balāsāghūn and Kashghar were considered part of China.
Legacy
The association of Khitai with China meant that the most enduring trace of the Khitan's power is names that are derived from it, such as Cathay, which is the medieval Latin appellation for China. Names derived from Khitai are still current in modern usage, such as the Russian, Bulgarian, Uzbek and Mongolian names for China. However, the use of the name Khitai to mean "China" or "Chinese" by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authorities, who tried to ban it.
Seals
In Autumn of the year 2019 a Chinese type bronze seal was discovered near a Caravanserai that was located near the Ustyurt Plateau. This seal has a weight of 330 grams and has the dimensions of 50x52x13 millimeters with a handle that is 21 millimeters in height. The inscription of the seal is written in Khitan large script and contains 20 characters. This was the first seal that could be confidently attributed to the a
Western Liao period as it is attributed to have been created during the 3rd month of the year Tianxi 20 (or the year 1197 in the Gregorian calendar) during the reign of Emperor Yelü Zhilugu. The discovery of this seal further indicated that the Qara Khitai Khanate adopted the Chinese administrative practice, as such seals were commonly used in the Imperial Chinese government apparatus.
As of 2020 it is unclear if the same regulations on seals existed in Qara Khitai as did in imperial China and if the sizes of Western Liao seals were standardised or not.
Sovereigns of Qara Khitai
Gallery
File:MongolHuntersSong.jpg|The Khitans in the 10th century, forebears of the Kara-Khitans.
File:CEM-19-Asiae-nova-description-1610-Jodocus-Hondius-2538.jpg|European maps showed the land of "Kara-Kithay" somewhere in Central Asia centuries after the collapse of the Qara Khitai. This 1610 map by Jodocus Hondius places it north of Tashkent.
File:A Kara-Khitan man.JPG|Portrait of a Kara-Khitan man.
File:Liao Khitan Hair Styles (14133273076).jpg|Khitan hairstyles
Read more...: 國名 歷史 早期耶律大石的活動 可敦稱王 耶律大石西征及稱帝 建都虎思斡耳朵和征金受挫 征服河中地區及花剌子模 蕭塔不煙及耶律夷列的執政 耶律普速完執政時期 耶律直魯古時期的衰落 西遼的滅亡 後續 疆域和民族 疆域 民族 政治 經濟 直轄地區 附庸國 軍事 文化和宗教 文化 宗教 建築藝術 君主列表 相關條目 注釋
國名
西遼建國號為「遼」,以示其為遼朝之延續。因位于先前耶律阿保機所建的大遼之西,該政權被史稱為「西遼」。此外,西遼在史書中還有後遼、西契丹、喀喇契丹、黑契丹等稱呼。「喀喇」意為「黑色」,根據五行說,與遼朝的「水」德相應。
歷史
早期耶律大石的活動
西遼的建立者耶律大石是遼朝開國君主耶律阿保機的八世孫,字重德。耶律大石精通契丹語和漢語,擅長弓馬騎射。1115年,耶律大石中進士入翰林,因契丹語稱翰林為林牙,耶律大石又被稱為大石林牙或林牙大石。後歷任泰州、祥州刺史,遼興軍節度使。
歷經200多年統治的遼朝國力逐漸走向衰弱,取而代之的是女真族建立的金朝。在金軍勢如破竹的攻擊下,遼朝節節敗退。1122年,金軍攻克遼中京大定府和澤州,遼天祚帝如驚弓之鳥,從居庸關至鴛鴦濼(今河北省張北縣安固里淖)到白水濼(今內蒙古自治區烏蘭察布市察右前旗黃旗海),再到女古底倉,一路倉皇逃跑至夾山(今內蒙古自治區武川縣附近)。數日後,宰相李處溫與南京(今北京市西南)都統蕭幹、耶律大石等擁立秦晉國王耶律淳為帝,建立北遼。耶律大石被視為肱骨之臣,官至太師。而一心想收複燕雲十六州的北宋也與金朝締結了海上之盟,南北夾擊遼朝,但被耶律大石、蕭幹兩次率軍擊退。同年,耶律淳病死,其妻蕭德妃臨朝稱制。1123年春,金軍攻破居庸關,北遼王朝危在旦夕,耶律大石決定挾持蕭德妃投奔天祚帝。天祚帝因耶律淳被立之事殺蕭德妃及外甥耶律常哥,由于耶律大石的辯解,才使天祚帝赦免了其餘眾人。
耶律大石在遼天祚帝帳下任都統一職,1123年,率遼軍進攻奉聖州,駐軍于龍門山東二十五里處。金朝都統完顏斡魯派完顏照立、完顏婁室、馬和尚等率軍攻打,耶律大石戰敗被完顏婁室俘虜,所部投降。完顏宗望用繩子綁著耶律大石,強迫他作為嚮導,率軍襲擊了天祚帝位于青塚濼(今內蒙古自治區呼和浩特市南)的大營,俘獲了天祚帝之子秦王耶律定、許王耶律寧和嬪妃、公主、從臣多人,獲取輜重車萬餘輛。同年9月,耶律大石跟隨金朝西征,帶領家眷自金營逃出,率領一支部隊投奔天祚帝。
1124年,在得到耶律大石的部隊和陰山室韋首領毛割石的援助後,遼天祚帝認為反攻的時機已經來臨,決定親自出兵收複燕州、雲州地區。耶律大石認為金軍氣盛,應當養精蓄銳,不能貿然出擊,天祚帝不聽,堅持出兵。耶律大石知道天祚帝無法完成複興遼朝的大業,又害怕得到天祚帝的猜忌,于是殺掉蕭乙薛和坡里括後自立為王,率領鐵騎200出奔。耶律大石走後,遼天祚帝雖然取得一些戰役的勝利,但不久便被金朝所敗。1125年,遼天祚帝在投奔西夏的途中被俘,遼朝滅亡。
可敦稱王
耶律大石率軍從夾山出發,北行三日渡過黑水(今艾不蓋河),途中遇到白韃靼人首領床古兒,床古兒給予耶律大石四百匹馬,二十頭駱駝,若干只羊的援助。耶律大石一路向西北,于1124年到達可敦城,召集威武、崇德、會蕃、新、大林、紫河、駝等七個軍州的長官和大黃室韋、敵剌、王紀剌、茶赤剌、也喜、鼻古德、尼剌、達剌乖、達密里、密兒紀、合主、烏古里、阻卜、普速完、唐古、忽母思、奚的、糾而畢十八個部族的首領舉行大會。在大會上,耶律大石慷慨激昂的指出先祖創建遼朝的艱難以及由于金朝對于遼朝侵略,造成天祚帝流亡在外、生靈塗炭,號召各軍州和部族驅逐仇敵,複興大遼。由于可敦城是遼朝的西北邊防重鎮,邊防軍隊不得隨意徵調,軍隊在戰亂中得以保存,並且此地還擁有可騎乘的戰馬數十萬匹。耶律大石安置官吏,整頓兵馬,磨礪武器,得到精兵萬餘人。
耶律大石在可敦城建立根據地後,積攢實力,不斷派使者聯絡白韃靼人、西夏以及北宋,從外交上孤立金朝。1125年夏,西夏聯絡耶律大石攻取金朝的山西諸郡。同年末,耶律大石派使者聯絡北宋,提議合力攻打金朝。1127年,白韃靼人與耶律大石通好,拒絕將馬匹賣給金朝。金太宗派使者問罪,雙方關繫緊張。1129年,耶律大石率軍攻取了金朝的北方二營。次年,金太宗派耶律余睹、石家奴、拔離速征討耶律大石,但由于諸部落不同意出兵,大軍行進至兀納水後收兵。
耶律大石西征及稱帝
經過休整,耶律大石的軍事實力得到壯大。1130年3月,耶律大石以青牛、白馬祭告天地、列祖,準備西征。耶律大石先派使者送信給高昌回鶻首領畢勒哥,闡明兩國先代的友好並要求借道去大食。畢勒哥得到書信後,迎接耶律大石至宮邸大宴三日,臨行前畢勒哥親自護送耶律大石出境,贈送耶律大石馬匹六百、駱駝數百、羊三千隻作為禮物,並約定交出人質,作為耶律大石的附庸國。
耶律大石率軍離開高昌回鶻,進入吉爾吉斯境內,遭到了當地的抵抗,但雙方未發生大規模的戰爭。耶律大石率軍繼續西進,到達葉密立。大軍所到之處望風披靡,獲取駱駝、牛、馬、羊等輜重無數。1131年春,金朝統帥粘罕及耶律余睹率領雲中、燕、雲州漢軍、金軍1萬人攻打耶律大石的根據地可敦城,但遭到失敗。耶律大石到達葉密立後,雖然與高昌回鶻發生過摩擦,但基本得到了當地突厥部族的支持,戶數達到4萬。1132年,耶律大石在新建成的葉密立正式稱「菊兒汗」,群臣又尊漢號為「天祐皇帝」,建元延慶,追尊祖父為元皇帝,祖母為宣義皇后,冊封元妃蕭氏為昭德皇后,西遼帝國正式建立。
建都虎思斡耳朵和征金受挫
西遼帝國建立後,耶律大石開始醞釀向周邊地區擴張。1132年,耶律大石親率大軍向南進發,高昌回鶻再次臣服于西遼。隨後耶律大石率軍越過天山,沿塔里木盆地北向西推進,與東喀喇汗國發生衝突。西遼軍被東喀喇汗國阿爾斯蘭汗阿赫馬德·伊本·哈桑的軍隊擊敗,大將阿勒·阿瓦爾被俘,損失慘重。耶律大石撤軍後向七河地區進發,收編了當地的契丹人和突厥人,共16000帳,使西遼軍隊的人數增加了一倍。耶律大石率軍駐紮于西遼與東喀喇汗國邊境地區,等待時機準備反攻。
1132年,阿赫馬德·伊本·哈桑去世,其子伊卜拉欣二世繼任。伊卜拉欣二世軟弱無能,原本臣屬于東喀喇汗國的葛邏祿和康里人趁機襲擊他的部屬和牲畜,進行劫掠。伊卜拉欣二世不能控制住國內的局勢,于是派使者請求耶律大石進入八剌沙袞(今吉爾吉斯斯坦托克馬克東邊)接管他的國家,使他「擺脫這塵世的煩惱」。耶律大石接到請求後,率軍進入東喀喇汗國首都八剌沙袞,「登上那不費分文的寶座」。耶律大石將伊卜拉欣二世降為伊列克·突厥蠻(意為突厥王),保留了他對喀什噶爾(今新疆維吾爾自治區喀什市)、和田地區的控制,東喀喇汗國成為西遼的附庸。由于八剌沙袞附近是可耕可牧的肥沃地區,耶律大石決定建都于此,將八剌沙袞改名為虎思斡耳朵(意為強而有力的宮帳),並改元康國。耶律大石隨後又派軍隊戰勝了征服了別失八里(今新疆維吾爾自治區吉木薩爾縣境內),康里人不久也臣服于西遼。
1134年4月,耶律大石任命六院司大王蕭斡里剌為兵馬都元帥,敵剌部前同知樞密院事蕭查剌阿不為副元帥,茶赤剌部禿魯耶律燕山為都部署,護衛耶律鐵哥為都監,率軍7萬征討金朝。在戰前的誓師大會上,耶律大石用白馬青牛祭天,指出先祖創業艱難,是由于後代君主耽于享樂致使社稷傾覆。中亞並非久居之地,應當榮歸故里,複興大遼。他又勸諭蕭斡里剌要與士卒同甘共苦,賞罰分明。作戰時要選擇水草豐富處紮營,謹慎用兵。但由于西遼與金朝兩國相隔遙遠,西遼軍隊行進萬里一無所獲,兵馬損失慘重,不得不撤軍回國。另據《三朝北盟會編》記載,1135年,耶律大石再次率軍攻打金朝,金熙宗派粘罕迎戰。金軍進入沙漠後與西遼軍征戰三晝夜不分勝敗,但金軍糧草斷絕,人馬凍死很多,加上本為契丹人的副將臨陣倒戈,致使粘罕大敗而歸。但此段史料的真實性待考。
征服河中地區及花剌子模
自1137年起,耶律大石開始了第二次擴張。1137年,耶律大石率軍向察赤(今烏茲別克斯坦塔什幹)、費爾幹納盆地及澤拉夫尚河流域進兵。同年5至6月,在忽氈(今塔吉克斯坦苦盞)遭到了西喀喇汗國可汗馬赫穆德·伊本·穆海默德的抵抗。西喀喇汗國戰敗,馬赫穆德敗逃回撒馬爾罕。1141年,西喀喇汗國與葛邏祿人爆發衝突,馬赫穆德向宗主國塞爾柱帝國求援。塞爾柱蘇丹桑賈爾動員伊斯蘭諸國參戰,集中了加茲尼王朝和古爾王朝的軍隊近10萬人,單單閱兵就耗費了半年時間。同年7月,桑賈爾率軍渡過阿姆河,進入河中地區,葛邏祿人急忙派使者向耶律大石求救。
耶律大石寫信給桑賈爾替葛邏祿人說情,但桑賈爾十分傲慢的回信命令耶律大石加入伊斯蘭教,並稱自己的軍隊能用箭截斷敵人的鬚髮。當耶律大石聽完桑賈爾的使者讀完書信後,下令拔下他的一撮鬍鬚,然後給他一根針讓他當場示範,使者不能做到。耶律大石說既然針不能截斷鬍鬚,那那個人又怎麼能用箭折斷鬚髮呢?于是下令進兵,雙方在撒馬爾罕以北的卡特萬草原對峙,西遼的軍隊中有契丹人、突厥人、漢人和蒙古人。耶律大石觀察了戰場的地形後,讓軍隊背靠達爾加姆峽谷安營。兩軍于1141年9月9日展開會戰,戰前耶律大石指出桑賈爾的聯軍人多少謀,如果全力進攻,他們就會首尾不顧。耶律大石派六院司大王蕭斡里剌、招討副使耶律松山等率兵2500攻打聯軍右翼,樞密副使蕭剌阿不、招討使耶律術薛等率兵2500攻打其左翼,耶律大石親率部隊攻打中軍;桑賈爾的聯軍右翼是埃米爾庫馬吉,左翼是錫斯坦埃米爾胡馬希,他自己親率中軍,有戰鬥經驗的老兵負責殿後。
在戰場上,錫斯坦貴族作戰英勇,但西遼軍隊中的葛邏祿人發揮了重要的作用,迫使桑賈爾的聯軍敗逃。桑賈爾和馬赫穆德逃奔至泰爾梅茲,桑賈爾的妻子、左、右翼統帥和伊斯蘭法學家胡薩姆·奧瑪爾·伊本·阿布杜·阿齊茲·伊本·馬扎·布哈里均被俘虜。桑賈爾的聯軍損失慘重,僅達爾加姆峽谷就裝下1萬名死者。《遼史》記載塞爾柱帝國聯軍的陣亡者橫尸數十里。卡特萬之戰後,塞爾柱帝國的勢力退出河中地區,西遼成為中亞霸主。耶律大石隨後率軍進入撒馬爾罕,立馬赫穆德之弟伊卜拉欣·伊本·穆海默德為桃花石汗,繼續讓其統治西喀喇汗國。 他還下令處死布哈拉的伊斯蘭教教長胡沙穆丁·倭瑪爾,任命阿爾普·的斤統治該地。隨後派大將額兒布思出兵花剌子模,在該地燒殺搶掠,迫使花剌子模沙阿阿拉丁·阿比茲向西遼臣服並且每年繳納價值3萬金第納爾的貨物和牲畜。1143年,耶律大石去世,在位20年,廟號德宗。
耶律大石的西征事跡被傳到歐洲,正逢第二次十字軍東征,于是在歐洲流傳著東方世界有一位神秘的祭司王約翰,是基督教的捍衛者。俄語、阿拉伯語、拉丁語和古英語中中國的發音類似于「契丹」,都是受耶律大石西征的影響。而耶律大石的名字也成了西遼帝國的代稱,在耶律大石死後,金、西夏、南宋等國家對西遼的後代君主皆稱為「大石」。
蕭塔不煙及耶律夷列的執政
耶律大石去世後,其子耶律夷列年幼,遺詔命皇后蕭塔不煙臨朝稱制,改元咸清,稱感天皇后。1144年,金熙宗得知耶律大石去世的消息,派粘割韓奴為使勸降西遼。正值蕭塔不煙在外出獵,粘割韓奴見到她不下馬跪拜,反而讓她下馬接詔。蕭塔不煙命人將粘割韓奴拉下馬,粘割韓奴痛罵不止,蕭塔不煙發怒,派人將其殺死。蕭塔不煙在位7年後,還政于子耶律夷列。
1150年,耶律夷列即位,改元紹興。耶律夷列在位期間普查首都虎思斡耳朵內畿18歲以上成年男子的人口,共84500戶。1156年,西喀喇汗國大汗伊卜拉欣三世與葛邏祿軍隊長官艾亞爾伯克發生衝突,雙方在飢餓草原發生戰爭,伊卜拉欣三世戰敗被暴尸荒野,其子阿里·本·哈桑繼任,稱恰格雷汗。恰格雷汗隨後對葛邏祿人展開報複,殺死其首領比古汗。葛邏祿的拉欽伯克和比古汗之子向花剌子模求助,而恰格雷汗則向西遼求援。耶律夷列派東喀喇汗國可汗伊卜拉欣·本·阿赫馬德率軍1萬前去救援。經撒馬爾罕的宗教人士調節,雙方簽訂合約,恰格雷汗恢復了葛邏祿首領的軍事職務,雙方撤軍。耶律夷列在位13年,于1163年去世,廟號仁宗。
耶律普速完執政時期
仁宗耶律夷列去世後,其子年幼,遺詔命其妹耶律普速完臨朝稱制,改元崇福,稱承天太后。為徹底解決葛邏祿人的隱患,1164年,耶律普速完命西喀喇汗馬斯烏德二世將布哈拉和撒馬爾罕兩地的葛邏祿人遷往喀什噶爾地區,但引發葛邏祿人的暴動。布哈拉長官默罕穆德·伊本·奧瑪爾一面安撫葛邏祿人,一面派使者向西喀喇汗國求援。葛邏祿人喪失警惕,最終得到毀滅性的打擊,勢力在河中地區衰落。次年,西遼軍隊進入呼羅珊,劫掠了巴爾赫。從此,巴爾赫臣服于西遼,並向西遼繳納土地稅。
1170年,西遼和喀喇汗國集結軍隊對花剌子模展開進攻。花剌子模沙阿伊爾·阿爾斯蘭派葛邏祿人阿亞爾伯克迎戰,雙方在阿姆河畔遭遇,花剌子模戰敗,阿亞爾伯克被俘。不久伊爾·阿爾斯蘭去世,其幼子蘇丹·沙赫繼任,其兄阿拉丁·塔乞失因爭位失敗而投奔西遼。塔乞失以花剌子模的財寶和按時繳納年貢為條件,換取了耶律普速完的支持。1172年,耶律普速完命丈夫蕭朵魯不率軍護送塔乞失回國即位,蘇丹·沙赫和其母圖兒罕聞訊逃走,西遼因此加強了對花剌子模的控制。但是,西遼之後頻繁派使者到花剌子模,每次都索要大量貢金,有些使者甚至不遵守外交禮節,這都讓塔乞失大為惱火。塔乞失下令處死一位對他無禮的契丹貴人,並與西遼使者相互謾罵。在得知這一消息後,蘇丹·沙赫投奔西遼,向耶律普速完解釋說自己得到了花剌子模百姓和軍隊的擁護。于是,耶律普速完又命蕭朵魯不率軍護送蘇丹·沙赫回國,塔乞失下令決阿姆河河堤,放水衝毀道路,阻止西遼軍隊的前進。蕭朵魯不將蘇丹·沙赫護送至呼羅珊,蘇丹·沙赫攻下梅爾夫、薩拉赫斯和圖斯,在此立足,至1193年才被塔乞失吞併。耶律普速完統治時期,西遼實力和疆域達到了頂峰。
耶律普速完統治時期,西遼與金朝也有接觸。1175年,乃蠻部首領寅特斯和康里部首領孛古率3萬戶背叛西遼,投靠金朝,使西遼對謙河(今葉尼塞河上游)一帶的控制力減弱。1177年,金熙宗派監察御史完顏覿古速巡邊,隨行的契丹人挼剌、招得、雅魯、斡列阿四人投奔西遼。
耶律普速完與其丈夫的弟弟蕭樸古只沙里私通,後將丈夫蕭朵魯不貶為東平王,並羅織罪名殺掉。耶律普速完之舉觸怒了二人的父親,也是西遼三朝元老、六院司大王蕭斡里剌。因此,蕭斡里剌發動兵變,率軍包圍皇宮,用箭射死耶律普速完和蕭樸古只沙里。耶律普速完在位共計14年。
耶律直魯古時期的衰落
耶律普速完死後,仁宗耶律夷列的次子耶律直魯古在殺死長兄後即位,改元天禧。耶律直魯古在位期間醉心于遊獵娛樂,不理政務,並不斷向周邊各國發動戰爭,使西遼的國力走向衰弱直至滅亡。
卡特萬之戰後,塞爾柱帝國的勢力不但已經完全退出河中地區,對呼羅珊的控制力也日趨減弱。因此,新興的古爾王朝逐漸吞併呼羅珊各地。古爾王朝不但占領了原本向西遼納貢的巴爾赫,還借巴格達哈里發的名義向周邊地區擴張,與西遼的附庸國花剌子模發生衝突。花剌子模沙阿阿拉丁·塔乞失向西遼求助,耶律直魯古派大將塔陽古率軍西征,于1198年4月至5月渡過阿姆河,向呼羅珊地區進兵,花剌子模也準備進攻赫拉特。西遼軍隊軍紀敗壞,在進入呼羅珊後到處燒殺搶掠,但在夜間遭到了古爾王朝及當地軍民的襲擊,許多士兵在強渡阿姆河時被淹死,此戰西遼損失12000人。耶律直魯古得知戰敗的消息大為震驚,向花剌子模派使者索要每個死者1萬金第納爾的損失費,但遭到塔乞失的拒絕,並且塔乞失出言不遜,觸怒了耶律直魯古。耶律直魯古出兵攻打花剌子模,再次遭到失敗,花剌子模進兵至布哈拉並一度攻下該城,但不久撤軍回國。
1203年至1204年,古爾王朝和花剌子模再次爆發戰爭,花剌子模沙阿阿拉烏丁·摩訶末向西遼求援。耶律直魯古派塔陽古率軍1萬支援,西喀喇汗奧斯曼·伊本·易卜拉欣也派兵參戰。古爾王朝蘇丹失哈不丁得知消息後急忙退兵,但在安都淮(今阿富汗安德胡伊)被西遼軍隊包圍。雙方展開激戰,古爾王朝有5萬人戰死,西遼軍隊也損失慘重。失哈不丁敗率領殘兵約100人敗逃回安都淮堡壘,但堡壘的城牆被西遼軍隊打開一個缺口。在他即將被俘時,西喀喇汗奧斯曼介入斡旋。在失哈不丁承諾交出大象、馬匹等物資及大量贖金後,西遼釋放了他。此戰西遼雖然取得勝利,但是付出了很大的代價。1205年,古爾王朝的巴爾赫總督伊馬杜丁·歐瑪爾率軍攻取了西遼控制下的泰爾梅茲。次年,失哈不丁在遠征印度時被刺殺,此後,古爾王朝走向衰落。由于西遼和古爾王朝大國兩敗俱傷,花剌子模從中漁翁得利。為穩住西遼,1206年,花剌子模沙阿摩訶末把從古爾王朝奪取的泰爾梅茲交還給西遼,並由其母親圖兒罕可敦出面,款待了西遼的使臣馬合木·太並補交了拖欠西遼的年貢。不過,此時西遼對于花剌子模的控制已經式微。
在西線持續作戰的同時,西遼也並未放棄東征複國計劃。1185年夏,耶律直魯古遣使西夏,遊說夏仁宗同意西遼借道西夏,讓西遼東征金朝以恢復故土。宋孝宗聞知後,希望能藉此機會實現南宋與西遼夾擊金朝,因此遣密使進入西夏境內遊說促成此事。不過,由于夏仁宗未同意耶律直魯古的請求,西遼東征計劃作罷。
耶律直魯古在位期間,西遼因窮兵黷武國力日衰,附庸國紛紛擺脫西遼的控制。1209年春,高昌回鶻亦都護巴而朮·阿而忒·的斤不堪西遼的統治,殺西遼太師僧少監,投靠了新興的蒙古帝國。1210年,花剌子模沙阿阿拉烏丁·摩訶末將耶律直魯古派往花剌子模的收取年貢的圖什處以磔刑,公開宣布脫離西遼的控制。西喀喇汗可汗奧斯曼也因為向耶律直魯古的女兒求婚遭到拒絕,倒向花剌子模。1211年,葛邏祿部阿爾斯蘭汗投靠蒙古帝國。東喀喇汗穆罕默德三世也起兵反抗西遼的統治,但遭到西遼軍隊的鎮壓,穆罕默德三世被俘。
西遼的滅亡
屈出律是乃蠻部塔陽汗之子。1204年,乃蠻部被蒙古帝國成吉思汗攻滅,屈出律逃亡至西遼,被耶律直魯古收留。屈出律很快得到了耶律直魯古的信任,直魯古將女兒渾忽公主嫁給他,並委託他處理國事,列入蕭氏。西遼的附庸國紛紛背叛西遼時,屈出律向耶律直魯古建議自己返回葉密立、海押立(今哈薩克斯坦塔爾迪庫爾幹)、別失八里等地召集乃蠻舊部,幫助耶律直魯古鎮壓叛亂。耶律直魯古封屈出律為可汗,並贈送他很多禮物。然而,屈出律在收編乃蠻舊部後,劫掠了西遼七河地區,並同時派使者聯絡花剌子模沙阿摩訶末,約定雙方誰先奪取西遼就占有它的土地。隨後,屈出律擊敗了西遼的軍隊,劫掠了耶律直魯古位于烏茲根的府庫,隨後又進攻西遼首都虎思斡耳朵,但在真兀赤被耶律直魯古擊敗。于是,屈出律返回葉密立,圖謀再次進攻。
1210年,耶律直魯古派軍隊3萬鎮壓西喀喇汗國的叛亂,攻下了其首都撒馬爾罕。在得知屈出律在東部叛亂的消息後,耶律直魯古急忙將軍隊調回東部。花剌子模趁機向撒馬爾罕推進,會和西喀喇汗國的軍隊向西遼進攻。聯軍到達西遼大將塔陽古鎮守的怛羅斯(今哈薩克斯坦塔拉茲附近),塔陽古率軍出城交戰,雙方不分勝負。然而,塔陽古在撤軍途中被俘,後遭處斬。花剌子模隨後將軍隊撤回河中地區。怛羅斯草原之戰後,塔陽古敗退的士兵返回西遼首都虎思斡耳朵時,當地居民由于想投降花剌子模,拒絕他們入城。西遼軍隊的統帥在勸降無果的情況下下令攻城,虎思斡耳朵的居民堅守16天後,城門被西遼軍隊用大象攻破。入城後西遼軍隊燒殺搶掠三天,城中被殺的大名紳有47000人。因為耶律直魯古的府庫遭到屈出律的劫掠,西遼宰相馬合木·太怕自己的財產被耶律直魯古徵收,于是建議兵士將在城中掠奪的的財產獻給耶律直魯古。然而,這一提議遭到了諸將領的抵制,導致西遼軍隊大量離散。
1211年秋,屈出律率軍8000襲擊了正在出獵的耶律直魯古,並竊取了皇位。屈出律尊耶律直魯古為太上皇,皇后為皇太后,早晚問候他們的衣食起居。1213年,耶律直魯古在憤懣中死去,共在位34年,史稱「天禧帝」。
屈出律即位後,釋放了東喀喇汗穆罕默德三世,將其送回喀什噶爾,但他不受當地貴族的歡迎,入城時被刺死于城門洞中。由于喀什噶爾不肯歸附屈出律,每逢秋收時節屈出律便派兵毀當地人的莊稼。1214年,當地百姓因為饑荒不得已而歸順。在占領喀什噶爾後,屈出律將西遼首都遷往喀什噶爾,並下令在每家每戶派駐一名士兵,這些士兵毫無軍紀,到處燒殺搶掠。屈出律屢次征討阿力麻里(今新疆維吾爾自治區霍城縣一帶)汗斡匝兒無果,最終趁其出獵時將其擒殺。
屈出律原本信奉景教,後在渾忽公主的勸說下改信佛教。他用強制手段強迫西遼當地的穆斯林改信佛教或景教,穿戴契丹人的服裝,這引起了當地人民的強烈不滿。屈出律征服和田後,下令召集當地的伊斯蘭教阿訇討論教義。由于教長阿訇阿剌丁·摩訶末極力維護伊斯蘭教,屈出律命人將其嚴刑拷打並強迫改教。摩訶末不從,屈出律下令將其釘死于清真寺的大門上。
1218年,蒙古帝國成吉思汗派哲別、曷思麥里率蒙古軍2萬攻打屈出律,屈出律聞訊帶領隨從從喀什噶爾逃跑。屈出律逃至巴達克山(今阿富汗巴達赫尚省),在瓦罕河谷東部的達拉茲峽谷被當地獵戶抓獲後交給哲別。哲別進入喀什噶爾後宣布宗教自由,城中居民對屈出律展開報複,大肆屠殺西遼的軍隊。哲別將屈出律斬首後,命曷思麥里拿著他的首級傳示于押兒牽(今新疆維吾爾自治區莎車縣)、斡端(今新疆維吾爾自治區和田市)等城,城中將領皆率部投降。至此,西遼為蒙古所滅,遼絕。
後續
西遼滅亡後,原西遼將領波剌黑·哈只卜前往波斯的克爾曼,于1224年在該地建立了克爾曼王朝。該王朝被個別學者稱為後西遼。1306年,該王朝被伊爾汗國所兼併。但是,該王朝君主並非耶律氏,史書也並未記載君主是否屬于契丹族、該王朝是否仍以「遼」為國號。因此,起爾曼王朝並不被史學界主流觀點視為西遼的延續。
疆域和民族
疆域
西遼幅員遼闊,統治區域除直轄領地外,包括很多附庸國和附屬部族。西遼的直轄領地以虎思斡耳朵為中心,北至伊犁河,南至錫爾河上游,西至怛羅斯,東至巴爾思罕(今伊塞克湖東南)。其附庸國有西喀喇汗國、東喀喇汗國、高昌回鶻和花剌子模,附屬部族主要有粘拔恩部(乃蠻部)、康里部和葛邏祿部。
西遼的疆域東至土拉河,包括可敦城周圍地區。乃蠻部、克烈部遷至這一地區後,西遼的東部邊界退至附庸國高昌回鶻的東部邊界;東北至謙河,與吉爾吉斯為鄰。1175年,由于粘拔恩部歸附金朝,退至阿爾泰山;西北越過巴爾喀什湖,包括康里人活動的地區;西至鹹海、烏斯提尤爾特高原和卡拉庫姆沙漠,包括花剌子模在內;南部西段以阿姆河為界,先後與塞爾柱帝國和古爾王朝為鄰。中段包括瓦罕走廊。東段以喀喇崑崙山、崑崙山、阿爾金山為界與吐蕃、黃頭回紇接壤;東南包括哈密、若羌,隔塔克拉瑪幹沙漠與西夏為鄰。
西遼的主要城鎮有虎思斡耳朵、河中府(撒馬爾罕)、玉里犍(玉龍傑赤)、蒲華(布哈拉)、察赤(塔什幹)、訛跡邗(烏茲根)、可失哈兒(喀什噶爾)、斡端(和田)、阿里馬(阿力麻里)、益離(伊犁)、唆里迷(焉耆)、哈密力(哈密)、別石把(別失八里)、和州(吐魯番)。
民族
西遼是個多民族的國家,有從中國東北而來的契丹人、漢人和其他民族,有使用波斯語的塔吉克人,使用突厥語的回鶻人,遊牧民族有葛邏祿人、康里人、乃蠻人等,還有從西亞僑居而來的阿拉伯人、波斯人、敘利亞人、猶太人等。作為少數民族的契丹人和漢人,與當地占多數的回鶻人、突厥人長期相處、通婚,適應了當地的習俗,逐漸融合于回鶻或其他突厥民族中。
政治
西遼的國家機構採用遼朝的「兩面制」,即政府分南北兩面。定居的農業民族按地區管理,設置州縣,中央設南面朝官總理軍政事務;流動的畜牧民族,以部族為行政單位,設官統治,中央設北面朝官總領部族軍政事務。除直轄領地外,西遼擁有很多附庸國。西遼保留了這些附庸國的獨立和制度,讓它們享有很大的自立權。西遼在附庸國基本不駐紮軍隊,只是應附庸國要求,幫助其鎮壓國內叛亂。菊兒汗發給他們一塊銀牌作為歸順的標誌。西遼根據這些國家的重要性和忠誠程度採取了不同的管理政策:如完全自治的布爾罕王朝;派沙黑納(負責監國的少監)常駐首府、監察軍政的東、西喀喇汗國、高昌回鶻;派官員按時了解情況,收取年貢的花剌子模。
此外,西遼在直轄地區實行中央集權制,禁止分封土地,但在附庸國保留了封建採邑制(伊克塔);輕徭薄賦,不收取土地稅,只向每戶收取1個第納爾的戶賦;宗教開放,信仰自由;對附庸國採取羈縻的政策。
經濟
直轄地區
西遼統治的直轄地區隨著經濟的發展,城鎮的數量和規模都得到大規模的發展,據統計,僅伊犁河谷地區,在12世紀城鎮數目就達到56個。原有的城鎮除虎思斡耳朵外,如怛羅斯、烏茲根、訛答剌(今哈薩克斯坦奇姆肯特阿雷思河和錫爾河交匯處)等,規模都得到成倍的擴大。七河及附近地區灌溉系統發達,當地居民使用鐵鏵木犁和砍土鏝耕作,使用鐮刀收割。西遼的農業不僅有穀物種植,還有園藝業、棉花種植和養蠶業,這些行業又帶動了糧食加工業和葡萄釀酒業的發展。此外,畜牧業和狩獵業也在西遼直轄地區占有重要的地位。
西遼直轄地區的手工業主要以制陶業、玻璃製造業、礦冶業、制鐵業、銅器製造業和石料加工業為主。貿易的貨物主要是金、宋的女奴、古玩、絲綢和白氈等;中亞和西亞的珠寶、玉器和香料等。此外,西遼的直轄地區存在奴隸貿易,奴隸主要來源于北方遊牧部落(特別是欽察人),多運往河中和西亞地區充當馬木路克。
西遼曾按中國內地錢幣的形式鑄造過自己的錢幣,如蕭塔不煙時期的感天元寶,《古泉匯》中記錄的康國通寶,耶律直魯古時期的天禧通寶。但西遼始終未統一貨幣,原喀喇汗國的貨幣仍被繼續使用和鑄造,稅收以金第納爾為計算單位。
附庸國
由于西遼對附庸國的經濟很少幹預,附庸國的經濟水平要高于西遼的直轄地區。在河中地區、喀什噶爾、和田地區和高昌回鶻都有發達的農業,畜牧業、狩獵業、捕魚業也是主要行業。
西遼附庸國的手工業主要有河中地區、喀什噶爾和和田地區的玻璃製造業;喀喇汗國的制陶業、金屬製作業、織造業和造紙業;高昌回鶻的織造業、五金業、礦業、冶煉業、製藥業和香料製作業。喀喇汗國和高昌回鶻位于中西交通的要道,與東方的宋、金,西方的印度、阿富汗以及西亞、北非和東南歐都有貿易關係。
西遼附庸國的經濟以河中地區的撒馬爾幹和布哈拉最為發達,其他城市包括喀喇汗國的察赤、忽氈等;高昌回鶻的喀什噶爾、斡端、別失八里、哈密力(今新疆維吾爾自治區哈密市)、唆里密(今新疆維吾爾自治區焉耆回族自治縣)、仰吉巴里(今新疆維吾爾自治區瑪納斯縣)等。
軍事
關于西遼的軍事制度,史料少有記載。西遼的軍隊中,騎兵是主要兵種,後期有西遼軍隊使用象兵作戰的記載。為防止軍隊叛亂,耶律大石禁止將軍直接控制100騎以上的軍隊,軍隊都由朝廷直接控制,只是在戰爭期間臨時調派若干士兵給某位將軍指揮。西遼限制已定居的遊牧民族攜帶武器、參與戰爭。西遼的軍隊在對外擴張、守衛邊疆、鎮壓叛亂和維護西遼統治等方面起到了重要的作用。西遼的附庸國也擁有各自的軍隊,負責維護治安及維持國家統治。附庸國的軍隊有時協同西遼作戰,有時受西遼的調遣執行任務,但有時也與西遼直接對抗。
文化和宗教
文化
西遼統治下的中亞文化的顯著特點就是東西方文化交流和融合的加強。西遼官方使用漢語、契丹語和波斯語,民間多使用突厥語。各民族在相互交流的過程中學習不同民族的語言,促進了文化的融合。西遼時期,由于受阿拉伯文化的影響,原來使用的回鶻文字母,逐漸被阿拉伯字母所代替。這一時期西遼的突厥語部族誕生了多位有影響力的詩人,如阿赫馬德·亞塞維、阿赫馬德·本·馬赫穆德·玉克乃克、阿馬克·布哈拉伊、蘇扎尼·撒馬爾罕迪等。
西遼統治時期,漢文化在中亞地區得到了廣泛的傳播,西遼的君主使用漢文年號和廟號,官方語言使用漢語。在行政、軍事、賦稅、生產技術、建築藝術、宗教信仰和生活習俗方面,漢文化從多方面影響著當時的中亞地區。
宗教
除屈出律統治時期以外,西遼始終奉行宗教自由的政策,改變了過去喀喇汗國法定國教為伊斯蘭教的政策。因此,佛教、伊斯蘭教、景教、薩滿教、摩尼教和猶太教在西遼都得到了很大的發展。
建築藝術
位於吉爾吉斯斯坦的西遼城市虎思斡耳朵、斯萊堅卡鎮、列別季諾夫卡鎮、亞歷山大古城都發現了西遼時期的民用建築遺址,在建築裝飾方面,體現了漢族藝術和漢文化與中亞文化融合的特點,如瓦、泥塑和暖炕等。廟宇中有漢族風格的繪畫裝飾牆壁,佛像不但有漢族藝術的模型,還兼具古代印度藝術的特點。此外,位于托克馬克附近的布蘭塔和烏茲根的兩座大型伊斯蘭陵墓,都是至今保存完好的西遼時期的伊斯蘭建築。這一時期河中地區的園林藝術也獲得了高度的發展,耶律楚材和丘處機寫下了不少讚美當地園林藝術的詩歌。
君主列表
相關條目
• 遼朝
• 耶律大石
• 卡特萬之戰
注釋
Source | Relation | from-date | to-date |
---|---|---|---|
西遼德宗 | ruled | 1124/2/21延慶元年二月癸未 | 1144/2/5康國十年十二月壬子 |
感天后 | ruled | 1144/2/6咸清元年正月癸丑 | 1151/1/19咸清七年十二月壬申 |
西遼仁宗 | ruled | 1151/1/20紹興元年正月癸酉 | 1164/1/25紹興十三年十二月丙戌 |
承天后 | ruled | 1164/1/26崇福元年正月丁亥 | 1178/1/20崇福十四年十二月乙未 |
西遼末主 | ruled | 1178/1/21天禧元年正月丙申 | 1212/2/4天禧三十四年十二月戊申 |
Text | Count |
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宋史紀事本末 | 1 |
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