Early life

Yao Chang was born in 331, while his father Yao Yizhong (姚弋仲), a major Qiang chief, was a general under the Later Zhao emperor Shi Le. He was the 24th of Yao Yizhong's 42 sons. He was described as intelligent and deliberate, but uninterested in detail matters. After Later Zhao's collapse, Yao Yizhong submitted to Jin Dynasty (266–420) as a vassal, and, after he died in 351, his son Yao Xiang took over his troops and headed south to submit to Jin command. After realizing that the Jin general Yin Hao was greatly suspicious of him, however, Yao Xiang rebelled in 352 and ambushed Yin, and then occupied the cities in the Luoyang region (although not Luoyang itself), intending on establishing himself as the ruler of the region. During this time, Yao Chang served as one of his strategists. In a battle in 352, Yao Xiang's horse was killed, and Yao Chang yielded his horse to Yao Xiang—telling Yao Xiang that as long as he was still alive, the enemy would not dare to touch Yao Chang. However, as they were still discussing, they were rescued by their troops.

However, before Yao Xiang could strengthen his rule over the region, the Jin general Huan Wen attacked him in 356 and defeated him, capturing cities that he held and forcing him to abandon the plans to establish himself in the region. Instead, He was forced to advanced northwest and then west to face Former Qin, ruled by the ethnically-Di emperor Fu Sheng. In 357, Yao Xiang advanced into Former Qin territory, and a number of Qiang, Xiongnu, and Han submitted themselves to him. Fu Sheng sent a force commanded by Fu Huangmei (苻黃眉), Fu Dao (苻道), Fu Jiān, and Deng Qiang (鄧羌) to resist him. Initially, Yao Xiang refused to engage them, but after Deng openly insulted him, Yao attacked and fell into a trap and was captured and killed. Yao Chang took over his troops but knew he could not resist, and so surrendered. Initially, Fu Huangmei wanted to execute Yao Chang, but at Fu Jiān's intercession, Yao Chang was spared.

In service of Fu Jiān

In 357, Fu Jiān overthrew the cruel and whimsical Fu Sheng (who had, in addition to many others, put Fu Huangmei to death even after his great victory) and took the throne himself. Sometime early in his reign, Fu Jiān made Yao Chang a general. The first campaign in which he was mentioned by name was in 366, when he assisted Wang Meng in an attack on Jin's Jing Province (荊州, modern Hunan and central and southern Hubei). In 367, he again assisted Wang Meng in attacking the rebels in modern eastern Gansu, who were led by the Qiang general Lian Qi (斂岐), whose subordinates were originally all Yao Yizhong's subordinates and therefore surrendered to him readily. Fu Jiān made him the governor of Longdong Commandery (隴東, roughly modern Baoji, Shaanxi). In 371, he was part of the campaign against Chouchi's ruler Yang Cuan (楊篡), and in 373, after Former Qin seized the modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi from Jin, Yao Chang was made the governor of Ning Province (寧州, modern southern Sichuan). In 376, Yao Chang also assisted Gou Chang (苟萇) in Former Qin's conquest of Former Liang, and in 378 involved in the sieged against the Jin city Xiangyang (襄陽, in modern Xiangfan, Hubei). Sometime during Fu Jiān's reign, he created Yao Chang the Marquess of Yidu.

In 383, Fu Jiān prepared a major attack on Jin, intending to destroy it and unite China. Yao Chang was one of the few generals who was in favor of the plan, as the vast majority of Fu Jiān's subordinates opposed, including his brother and prime minister Fu Rong—who specifically was suspicious of Yao Chang and Murong Chui (a general with Former Yan imperial ancestry), neither of whom was of Di ancestry and both of whom favored the attack on Jin. Fu Jiān proceeded with the plan despite Fu Rong's opposition, making Fu Rong the commander of the main invasion force. Yao Chang was put in charge of the armies of the southwest (on a separate front away from the main front), and as Fu Jiān was handing out the command assignments, he gave Yao Chang the title General Longxiang (龍驤將軍) -- a title that he himself carried previously when he overthrew Fu Sheng—and he commented, apparently in a jocular tone:

:Before, I established my rule as the General Longxiang. I do not easily confer this title on others. You should take good care of the title.

Another general, Dou Chong, immediately objected, stating that it is a bad omen for the emperor to joke, and Fu Jiān grew briefly silent.

Later that year, against the much weaker Jin troops, Fu Rong's forces were nevertheless defeated at the Battle of Fei River—a battle that Yao Chang was not involved in—and Fu Rong was killed. In early 384, Murong Chui rebelled in the eastern empire, hoping to reestablish Yan, and upon hearing Murong Chui's rebellion, Murong Chui's nephew Murong Hong rebelled as well, near the Former Qin capital Chang'an. Fu Jiān sent his brother Fu Rui (苻叡) against Murong Hong, assisted by Yao Chang. Yao Chang advocated letting Murong Hong, who was intent on leaving the Guanzhong region to return to his homeland, leave, but the brash Fu Rui insisted on intercepting Murong Hong, and was defeated and killed by Murong Hong. Yao Chang sent messengers Zhao Du (趙都) and Jiang Xie (姜協) to report the bad news to Fu Jiān—and Fu Jiān, inexplicably, executed Zhao and Jiang in anger. Yao Chang became fearful and abandoned his troops, gathered the Qiang of the region, and rebelled himself, claiming the title of "King of Qin of 10,000 Years" (萬年秦王), thus establishing Later Qin.

As king

Yao Chang initially opted to keep his troops mobile, as he anticipated Murong Hong's Western Yan forces to siege Chang'an and destroy Former Qin and then depart for their homeland, so that he could take Chang'an without major engagements. In doing this, he hoped to conserve and increase his strength while his rivals battled. He therefore temporarily placed his capital at Beidi (北地, in modern Tongchuan, Shaanxi), seizing the cities of the modern northern Shaanxi. Despite this, he had periodic battles with Former Qin and Western Yan forces, as Former Qin and Western Yan also battled each other.

In 385, an incident involving the city of Xinping (新平, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi) helped to further establish Yao Chang's reputation as wily and treacherous. The people of Xinping had fought extremely hard to preserve their city for Former Qin when Yao Chang first started sieging the city in late 384. Eventually, when Xinping ran out of food supplies and military equipment, Yao Chang assured the governor of Xinping commandery, Gou Fu (苟輔), that if he yielded the city, he would be allowed to safely lead the people of Xinping to Chang'an. Gou believed him, but as soon as he exited the city with the 5,000 remaining people, Yao Chang surrounded them with his troops and slaughtered them all, with only a single person who escaped.

In fall 385, Fu Jiān abandoned Chang'an, long under siege by Western Yan, and he sought to try to find food supplies. When he arrived at Wujiang Mountain (五將山, in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), Yao Chang sent his general Wu Zhong (吳忠) to surround Fu Jiān, eventually capturing him and delivering him to Xinping to be imprisoned there. Yao Chang tried to persuade him to ceremonially pass the throne to him, but Fu Jiān, angry at Yao's betrayal, refused. Later in 385, Yao sent his soldiers to strangle Fu Jiān. Even Later Qin soldiers mourned Fu Jiān, however, and Yao, in order to pretend as if he did not put Fu Jiān to death, posthumously honored him as Heavenly King Zhuanglie (壯烈天王).

Western Yan forces, under its now-emperor Murong Chong, occupied Chang'an, and Western Yan and Later Qin battled on-and-off. However, the Western Yan people were unhappy that Murong Chong was not leading them back to their homeland in the east, and, in 386, Murong Chong was assassinated in a coup and replaced with Duan Sui, who was then assassinated and replaced with Murong Yi, under whom the Western Yan people abandoned Chang'an and headed east. Briefly, Chang'an was held by the Xiongnu chief Hao Nu (郝奴), but Yao Chang then advanced on Chang'an, and Hao surrendered. Yao Chang made Chang'an his capital and claimed the title of emperor. He created his wife Lady She as empress and his son Yao Xing as crown prince.

As emperor

For the next few years, Yao Chang would not have complete control over the region, as many Di, Qiang, Xiongnu, and Han generals were still remaining semi-independent throughout the region. Further, in 386, a distant member of Former Qin's imperial Fu clan, Fu Deng, rose in modern eastern Gansu to oppose him, and after the death of Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi that year, claimed imperial title and became the main adversary for Yao Chang. Fu Deng used Yao Chang's killing of Fu Jiān to good propaganda effect, and for several years was quite successful in battles against Yao Chang, although the battles were generally inconclusive in their impact, with neither Fu Deng nor Yao Chang being able to decisively defeat the other. However, Yao Chang was able to gradually subdue the other Former Qin generals of the region, taking advantage of Fu Deng's cautiousness. In 387, for example, after the Former Qin general Fu Zuan (苻纂) was killed by his brother Fu Shinu (苻師奴), Yao Chang took the opportunity to quickly advance against Fu Shinu and defeat him, seizing his troops. He also, at the same time, seized the remaining cities held by Western Yan west of the Yellow River.

In 389, after losing several battles to Former Qin, Yao Chang became apprehensive and thought that it was Fu Jiān's spirit aiding Former Qin, so he, following Fu Deng's lead, made an image of Fu Jiān and worshipped it, claiming to it that he had killed Fu Jiān only to avenge Yao Xiang and asking for forgiveness. The image did not help Yao Chang, and he eventually cut off its head and sent it to Fu Deng. Later that year, as Fu Deng was pressuring Yao Chang, however, Yao Chang made a surprise attack at night, around Fu Deng's army, against Fu Deng logistics base Dajie (大界, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi), capturing it and Fu Deng's wife Empress Mao and killing his sons Fu Bian (苻弁) and Fu Shang (苻尚). He initially wanted to make Empress Mao his concubine, but after she cursed him, he executed her. While Former Qin and Later Qin would continue to stalemate for the next few years, Fu Deng was unable to again threaten Later Qin's existence from this point on.

In 392, Yao Chang grew ill, and Fu Deng, hearing this, made a major attack on the important Later Qin city Anding (安定, in modern Pingliang, Gansu), but Yao Chang, in his illness, nevertheless faced him in battle, forcing Fu Deng to withdraw—and then, in the engagement, made a clean evasive maneuver with his troops and disengaged, to Fu Deng's surprise, and Fu Deng commented:

:What kind of a man is Yao Chang? I could not tell when he would go and when he would come. Everyone thought that he is near death, but he lives to fight. It is unfortunate that I live at the same time as this old Qiang.

Around the new year 394, Yao Chang died. Yao Xing succeeded him.

Era name

• Baique (白雀 baí què) 384–386

• Jianchu (建初 jiàn chū) 386–393

Personal information

• Father

　• Yao Yizhong (d. 351), posthumously honored as Emperor Jingyuan

• Wife

　• Empress She (created 386, d. 397)

• Major Concubines

　• Consort Sun, posthumously honored as empress dowager, might be Crown Prince Xing's birth mother

• Children

　• Yao Xing (姚興), the Crown Prince (created 386), later emperor

　• Yao Song (姚嵩), the Marquess of Ancheng and Sikong (killed in battle 416)

　• Yao Ping (姚平), the Duke of Yiyang (killed in battle 402)

　• Yao Chóng (姚崇) (note tone difference), the Duke of Qi (created 395)

　• Yao Xian (姚顯), the Duke of Changshan (created 395)

　• Yao Yong (姚邕), the Duke of Jinan

　• Yao Chōng (姚沖) (note tone difference) (forced to commit suicide 409)

　• Princess Nan'an

生平

隨兄征戰

姚萇年少時已聰慧明智，多有權略，豁達率性，並沒有專注於德行和學業之上，而其眾位兄長都認為他很特別。後來姚萇跟隨姚襄四處出兵，經常參與重要的決策。永和八年（352年），姚襄在麻田敗於前秦軍，其坐騎更中箭死亡，姚萇冒險將自己的坐騎送給姚襄助其出逃。最後姚萇因援軍趕至才得倖免。

昇平元年（357年），姚襄謀取關中失敗，在三原（今陝西三原縣）與前秦將領苻黃眉、鄧羌等的交戰中戰死。姚萇當時就率姚襄餘眾盡降前秦。同年前秦宗室苻堅發動政變推翻皇帝苻生，自任天王，並以姚萇為揚武將軍。

屢獲戰功

太和二年（367年），姚萇隨同王猛參與討伐以略陽郡叛變的羌人斂岐，並因姚弋仲昔日統領斂岐的部落，大量部眾知道姚萇到來都向前秦歸降，令得前秦順利取下略陽。太和六年（371年）三月，與苻雅、楊安、王統、徐成及朱彤等討伐據有仇池的氐王楊纂，雙方決戰於峽谷，楊纂大敗，損失三成兵力，終被逼投降。

寧康元年（373年）十一月，前秦攻下東晉領下的益、梁二州，姚萇出任寧州刺史，屯兵於墊江（今重慶市墊江縣）。後遷任步兵校尉，封益都侯。太元元年（376年）五月，與武衛將軍苟萇、左將軍毛盛、中書令梁熙等進逼黃河，並於八月對前涼發動攻擊，攻滅前涼。

太元八年（383年），東晉荊州刺史桓沖北伐，其中涪城（今四川綿陽市）受到晉將楊亮攻擊，姚萇遂與張蚝出兵救援，逼楊亮退兵。同年苻堅大舉攻晉，意圖滅掉東晉，統一全國，史稱淝水之戰。當時苻堅就以姚萇為龍驤將軍，督益、梁二州諸軍事，讓其從蜀地率軍進攻東晉西方，更說：「朕昔日就是以龍驤將軍建立大業，這個將軍號從來都沒有改授他人，今天特別對你授予此號，山南之事都交給你了。」

建立後秦

苻堅於淝水之戰中大敗，姚萇返回長安。而前秦在戰敗後國力大衰，其中北地長史慕容泓於戰後第二年在關東起兵叛亂，回屯華陰（今陝西華陰市），響應於河北地區叛變的叔父慕容垂。苻堅於是命雍州牧苻叡出兵討伐，而姚萇則任其司馬。當時慕容泓因畏懼而率眾東逃關東，苻叡因輕敵而決心追去邀擊，不聽姚萇的諫言，最終遭慕容泓擊敗，苻叡亦戰死。姚萇在敗後派長史趙都及參軍姜協向苻堅謝罪，但二人卻被憤怒的苻堅殺死，驚懼的姚萇於是逃到渭北的牧馬場。在當地，尹緯、尹詳及龐演等人聯結羌族豪強共五萬多戶向姚萇歸降，並推姚萇為盟主。姚萇於是在太元九年（384年）自稱大將軍、大單于、萬年秦王，改元「白雀」，建立後秦政權。

屢戰前秦

姚萇接著進屯北地，華陰、北地、新平及安定各郡共有十多萬名羌胡外族歸附。不久苻堅親自率軍討伐姚萇，姚萇屢敗更遭前秦軍斷絕水源。然而就在後秦軍中有人渴死及在恐懼當中時就遇上天雨，營中水深三尺，解決了水荒，亦令後秦軍心復振。不久姚萇出兵反擊，擊敗前秦將楊璧並俘獲楊璧、徐成及毛盛等數十人，皆禮待而送還。而隨著西燕軍隊逼近長安，苻堅率兵回防長安。雖然姚萇在早前向西燕送質請和，但當時姚萇群臣卻建議姚萇加入戰鬥以奪取長安，建立根本之地。不過姚萇自度慕容氏獲勝並後不會長留關中，必會東歸河北，故此打算北屯九嵕（今陝西乾縣東北）以北一帶地區（嶺北）以積聚實力和資源，待前秦亡國而西燕東歸後自取長安。姚萇隨後親自率軍進攻新平郡城（今陝西省邠縣），卻遭守將苟輔頑強抵抗，有萬多人陣亡。苟輔又詐降誘騙姚萇入城，雖然姚萇入城前就察覺而沒進城，但仍受到苟輔伏兵攻擊，萬多人戰死之餘亦險些被擒。

因為新平久久不下，姚萇於是在白雀二年（385年）正月留兵繼續攻城，自己另外出兵安定郡，擒下前秦安西將軍苻珍，亦令嶺北諸城降，唯新平未下。至四月，新平物資匱乏，亦無外援，苟輔接受後秦軍的勸降，率城內五千人出降。姚萇下令將所有人坑殺，奪取了新平。五月，苻堅離開長安，出屯五將山，至七月時後秦將吳忠捕獲苻堅，送至新平。同年八月，姚萇因向苻堅索取傳國玉璽不遂，更遭其出言侮辱，於是縊殺苻堅於新平佛寺（今彬縣南靜光寺）。姚萇為了掩飾他殺死苻堅的行為，諡苻堅為「壯烈天王」。

十月，已據有長安的西燕王慕容沖派高蓋攻伐姚萇，遭後秦軍擊敗並投降。白雀三年（386年），西燕國內政變頻生，並開始棄守長安東歸。時盧水胡郝奴乘虛入據長安並稱帝，更命其弟郝多進攻於馬嵬（今陝西興平市馬嵬鎮）自守的王驎。姚萇此時從安定東攻，逼走王驎並擒得郝多，並進攻長安，令郝奴懼而請降。取長安後姚萇就於五月即位為帝，改年號「建初」，建國號大秦。不久又擊敗了前秦秦州刺史王統，奪取秦州。

但同一年，前秦宗室苻登就在關中氐族殘餘勢力的推舉下與後秦對抗，不久在前秦帝苻丕遇害後更稱帝繼位。起初苻登力量甚盛，在涇陽（今陝西涇陽縣）大敗姚碩德，要姚萇親自出兵救援；更謀攻長安。不過當時前秦重將苻纂為苻師奴所殺，將領蘭櫝遂與苻師奴反目。蘭櫝因受西燕皇帝慕容永攻擊而向後秦求援，姚萇以苻登遲疑慎重而少決斷，不敢出兵深入而冒著遭乘虛後襲的危險，決意親自率軍救援。最終先破苻師奴並盡收其眾，後敗慕容永並生擒蘭櫝。

另姚方成亦擊敗徐嵩，徐嵩雖然被俘仍大罵姚萇不僅背叛對其有恩的苻堅，更將他殺害，不惜恩情就連狗和馬都不如。姚方成殺死徐嵩後，姚萇又掘出苻堅的屍首不斷鞭撻，更脫光屍身的衣服，裹以荊棘並以土坑埋掉，以釋心中憤怨。建初三年（388年），自春季開始夏末，姚、苻兩軍就分別據朝那（今寧夏朝那縣）及武都（今甘肅武都縣）相持並交戰，互有勝負而不能擊倒對方，於是都解兵歸還。但關西豪傑都以後秦久久未能站穩關中，反多次敗給苻登，大多都投向前秦，唯齊難、徐洛生、劉郭單等人仍然忠於後秦，提供軍糧並跟隨姚萇征戰。

計挫苻登

建初四年（389年），姚萇屢次敗於苻登，命姚崇襲擊苻登於大界的輜重又不得，而苻登就已威脅安定。面對如此局面，姚萇堅拒與苻登正面決戰，力圖以計取勝，於是乘夜率兵三萬再攻大界，終攻克大界並殺毛皇后等人及生擒數十名前秦名將。姚萇隨後亦不貪勝，堅拒乘勝進擊苻登，苻登於是收餘眾退守胡空堡，但已元氣大傷。

在大敗苻登輜重後的四個月後，姚萇設計讓其將任盆詐降以誘殺苻登，雖然最終因雷惡地識破而事敗，但苻登卻忌憚雷惡地，逼其降於姚萇。次年（390年）魏揭飛攻後秦，雷惡地叛迎魏揭飛，雖然當時苻登正在長安附近的新豐（今陝西西安市臨潼區），但姚萇以雷惡地「智略非常」，於是親自出兵攻伐魏揭飛。魏揭飛見姚萇兵少就讓全軍進擊，姚萇特意示弱不戰，卻派了姚崇從敵軍後方攻擊令其混亂，接著就出兵直擊，大敗對方並陣斬魏揭飛，又再降雷惡地並不減昔日待遇。雷惡地兩度歸於姚萇，終對其心服。另外姚萇亦不怕前秦兗州刺史強金槌詐降，只帶著數百騎兵隨其訪問強金槌的軍營，以坦誠獲得了身為氐族人的強金槌的信任，令其不應其他氐族勢力的計謀而加害姚萇。

至建初六年（391年）十二月，苻登進攻安定，姚萇在安定城東擊敗他。次年三月，前秦將沒弈幹亦向後秦歸降，但姚萇不久就患病。苻登得知姚萇患病就乘機進攻安定，至八月姚萇病情轉好就親自率兵抵抗，更乘苻登出營迎擊而命姚熙隆進襲前秦軍營，令苻登懼而退兵。姚萇又讓軍隊旁出跟隨苻登，苻登得知後秦營壘空空如也，失去其影蹤後更為驚懼，只得敗還雍城（今陝西鳳翔縣南）。

建初八年（393年）十月，姚萇病重而回長安。至同年十二月，姚萇召太尉姚旻、僕射尹緯及姚晃、將軍姚大目和尚書狄伯支受遺詔輔政，輔助太子姚興。及後姚萇去世，享年六十四歲。姚興先秘不發喪，至次年才發布死訊，上諡號為武昭皇帝，廟號太祖。

性格特徵

• 姚萇簡單率直，即使當了君主，屬下有過錯可能還會直加責罵。權翼曾勸他不要這樣對待屬下，但姚萇自以這是自己本性，更稱自己聽正直之言，能知己過。

• 姚萇甚得苻堅重用，尤以其為龍驤將軍，並以自己從龍驤將軍登位至前秦君主一事作勉勵。但姚萇終殺害苻堅，此行為成了前秦將領反對及討伐他的理由，而姚萇亦曾挖屍洩忿。不過在屢敗於苻登後，卻認為是苻堅亡魂的助力，於是也在軍中樹立苻堅神像祈求道：「新平之禍，不是臣姚萇的錯啊，臣的兄長姚襄從陝州北渡，順著道路要往西邊去，像狐狸死時把頭朝向原本洞穴一樣，只是想要見一見鄉里啊。陛下與苻眉攔阻於路上攻擊他，害他不能成功就死了，姚襄遺命臣一定要報仇。苻登是陛下的遠親亦想復仇，臣為自己的兄長報仇，又怎麼說是辜負了義理呢？當年陛下封我為龍驤將軍，跟我說：『朕從龍驤將軍當上了皇帝，卿也好好努力罷！』這明明白白的詔諭非常顯然，好像還在耳邊一樣。陛下已經過世成為神明了，怎麼會透過苻登而謀害臣，忘卻當年說的話呢！現在為陛下立神像，請陛下的靈魂進入這裏，聽臣至誠的禱告。」 不過戰況仍未有改善，反時有夜驚，並招來苻登批評，終毀了苻堅像。據說姚萇死前曾夢見過苻堅率天官、鬼兵去襲擊他（《晉書》「將天官使者、鬼兵數百突入營中」），期間他被救援自己的士兵誤傷陰部至大量出血。醒後就發現陰部腫脹，醫者刺腫處則如夢中一樣大量出血（《晉書》「誤中萇陰，出血石餘」），如此嚇得姚萇發狂胡言，又求苻堅原諒，姚萇不久傷重身亡，臨終前跪伏床頭，叩首不已。

• 即使姚萇在位期間皆與前秦等勢力戰鬥，但仍設立太學，禮遇先賢後代；又曾命各鎮都要設置學官，由他們評核人才優劣再隨其才能擢用，皆可見其重視文教和吸納文人的行為。而他在安定亦修治德政，大行教化，省卻不必要的支出，亦表彰平民戶中有善行的人。

• 姚萇長期征戰，雖為君主亦不貪圖逸樂，於與前秦相持不下，部分豪族轉為支持前秦時更寫書自責，並賣掉後宮珍寶去支持軍事，而自己與妻子都力行簡約，對為國戰死的將士皆有所褒揚和追贈。

后妃子女

后妃

• 虵皇后，氐族人。

• 孫氏，姚興庶母，一說為生母，姚興登位後獲追封為太后。

子女

• 姚興，姚萇長子，後秦文桓帝。

• 姚嵩，安成侯，司空，精研佛學。後出鎮上邽，被楊盛所殺。

• 姚平，義陽公，柴壁之戰中突圍失敗，投水自殺。

• 姚崇，齊公，中軍將軍。

• 姚顯，常山公。

• 姚邕，濟南公，曾勸姚興提防赫連勃勃。

• 姚沖，姚萇幼子，平北將軍，409年出征赫連勃勃時謀叛但失敗，被賜死。

• 姚和都

• 南安長公主

注釋