History

Background

The religious background of the White Lotus Sect goes back to the founding of the first White Lotus Society (白蓮社) in the Donglin Temple at Mount Lu by the Huiyuan (334–416 CE). During the Northern Song period (960–1126), White Lotus Societies were founded throughout southern China, spreading Pure Land teachings and meditation methods with them. Between 9th and 14th centuries, Chinese Manichaeans increasingly involved themselves with the Pure Land school. Through this close interaction Manichaeism had profound influence on Chinese Maitreyan Buddhist sects within the Pure Land tradition, practicing together so closely alongside the Buddhists that the two traditions became indistinguishable.

Origins

During the 12th century a Buddhist monk, Mao Ziyuan (茅子元) (; Dharma name: Cizhao (慈照)), founded the White Lotus School (白蓮宗) in order to connect the scattered White Lotus Societies. He erected a Lotus Repentance Temple (蓮懺堂) where he preached the teachings of the White Lotus School, which became the basis of the White Lotus religion (白莲敎). This White Lotus religion was a hybrid movement of Buddhism and Manichaeism that emphasised Maitreya teachings and strict vegetarianism; its permission for men and women to interact freely was considered socially shocking.

During the late thirteenth century, the Mongol Yuan dynasty's rule over China prompted small yet popular demonstrations against its rule. As they grew into widespread dissent, adherents of White Lotus took part in some of these protests, leading the Yuan government to ban the White Lotus religion as a heterodox religious sect (宗教异端), forcing its members to go underground. Now a secret society, the White Lotus became an instrument of quasi-national resistance and religious organisation. This fear of secret societies carried on in the law; the Great Qing Legal Code, which was in effect until 1912, contained the following section:

Like other secret societies, they covered up their unusual or illicit activities as "incense burning ceremonies".

White Lotus Revolution

The White Lotus was a fertile ground for fomenting rebellion.

A Buddhist monk from Jiangxi named Peng Yingyu began to study the White Lotus and ended up organizing a rebellion in the 1330s. Although the rebellion was put down, Peng survived and hid in Anhui, then reappeared back in South China where he led another unsuccessful rebellion in which he was killed. This second rebellion changed its colours from white to red and its soldiers were known as the "Red Turbans" for their red bandanas.

Another revolution inspired by the White Lotus society took shape in 1352 around Guangzhou. A Buddhist monk and former boy-beggar, the future Ming dynasty founder Zhu Yuanzhang, joined the rebellion. His exceptional intelligence took him to the head of a rebel army; he won people to his side by forbidding his soldiers to pillage in observance of White Lotus religious beliefs. By 1355 the rebellion had spread through much of China.

In 1356, Zhu Yuanzhang captured the important city of Nanjing (then called Jiqing) and made it his capital, renaming it Yingtian. It was here that he began to discard his heterodox beliefs and so won the help of Confucian scholars who issued pronouncements for him and performed rituals in his claim of the Mandate of Heaven, the first step toward establishing a new dynastic rule.

Meanwhile, the Mongols were fighting among themselves, inhibiting their ability to suppress the rebellion. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang extended his rule to Guangzhou, the same year that the Mongol ruler, Toghon Temür, fled to Karakorum. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang and his army entered the former capital of Beijing and in 1371 his army moved through Sichuan to the southwest.

By 1387, after more than thirty years of war, Zhu Yuanzhang had liberated all of China. He took the title Hongwu Emperor and founded the Ming dynasty, whose name echoes the religious sentiment of the White Lotus.

Wusheng Laomu

Despite their involvement in overthrowing the Yuan dynasty and therefore in the founding of Ming dynasty, the White Lotus did not cease its political activities against Chinese authorities; consequently, it remained prohibited during the Ming dynasty. Since they were prohibited from establishing a central authority, no doctrinal orthodoxy could be enforced, allowing their teachings and practices to increasingly diversify. While Maitreya remained the central figure for most White Lotus sects, during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor (1506–1521) a new deity began to grow in popularity among White Lotus adherents, namely Wusheng Laomu (無生老母). Originating from the Daoist Chinese folk religion, she was identified as the transcendent Buddha who never incarnated but exists without coming into being or transforming into non-being, but was nevertheless foretold to come down upon earth to gather all her children at the millennium into one family and guide them safely back to Heaven, the "home of the true emptiness" (真空家鄉).

Wang Lun uprising

The White Lotus reemerged in the late 18th century in the form of an inspired Chinese movement in many different forms and sects.

In 1774, the herbalist and martial artist Wang Lun founded a derivative sect of the White Lotus that promoted underground meditation teachings in Shandong province, not far from Beijing near the city of Linqing. The sect led an uprising that captured three small cities and laid siege to the larger city of Linqing, a strategic location on the north–south Grand Canal transportation route. After initial success, he was outnumbered and defeated by Qing troops, including local armies of Chinese soldiers known as the Green Standard Army.

An account of Wang Lun's death was given to Qing authorities by a captured rebel. Wang Lun remained sitting in his headquarters wearing a purple robe and two silver bracelets while he burned to death with his dagger and double-bladed sword beside him.

Wang Lun likely failed because he did not make any attempts to raise wide public support. He did not distribute captured wealth or food supplies, nor did he promise to lessen the tax burden. Unable to build up a support base, he was forced to quickly flee all three cities that he attacked in order to evade government troops. Though he passed through an area inhabited by almost a million peasants, his army never measured more than four thousand soldiers, many of whom had been forced into service.

White Lotus Rebellion

Beginning in 1794, two decades after Wang Lun's failed uprising, a movement also arose in the mountainous region that separates Sichuan from Hubei and Shaanxi in central China as tax protests. Here, the White Lotus led impoverished settlers into rebellion, promising personal salvation in return for their loyalty. Beginning as tax protests, the eventual rebellion gained growing support and sympathy from many ordinary people. The rebellion grew in number and power and eventually, into a serious concern for the government.

A systematic program of pacification followed in which the populace was resettled in hundreds of stockaded villages and organized into militia. In its last stage, the Qing suppression policy combined pursuit and extermination of rebel guerrilla bands with a program of amnesty for deserters. The rebellion came to an end in 1804. A decree from the Daoguang Emperor admitted, "it was extortion by local officials that goaded the people into rebellion..." Using the arrest of sectarian members as a threat, local officials and police extorted money from people. Actual participation in sect activities had no impact on an arrest; whether or not monetary demands were met, however, did.

Eight Trigrams uprising

In the first decade of the nineteenth century, there were also several White Lotus sects active in the area around the capital city of Beijing. Lin Qing, another member of the Eight Trigrams sect within the White Lotus, united several of these sects and with them build an organization that he would later lead in the Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813.

Administrators also seized and destroyed sectarian scriptures used by the religious groups. One such official was Huang Yupian, who refuted the ideas found in the scriptures with orthodox Confucian and Buddhist views in A Detailed Refutation of Heresy (破邪詳辯 Pōxié Xiángbiàn), which was written in 1838. This book has since become an invaluable source in understanding the beliefs of these groups.

Second Sino-Japanese War

White Lotus adherents who collaborated with the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) were fought against by the Muslim General Ma Biao.

Uses of the term "White Lotus" in later periods

While traditional historiography has linked many Maitreyist and millenarian uprisings during the Ming and Qing dynasties as all related to the White Lotus, there are reasons to doubt that such connections existed. B. J. Ter Haar has argued that the term "White Lotus" became a label applied by late Ming and Qing imperial bureaucrats to any number of different popular uprisings, millenarian societies or "magical" practices such as mantra recitation and divination. If this interpretation is correct, the steady rise in the number of White Lotus rebellions in imperial histories during the Ming and Qing does not necessarily reflect the increasing strength of a unified organization. Instead, this trend reflects a growing concern by imperial bureaucrats with any form of Buddhism practiced outside of the sanctioned frameworks of the monasteries.

Tiandihui and the Triads

The White Lotus sect may have been one of the main ancestors of the Chinese organizations known as the Triads. The Triads were originally members and soldiers of the Tiandihui or "Heaven and Earth Society" during the period of the war between the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Triads' formation was not for criminal purposes, but to overthrow the Qing and restore the Ming to power. The White Lotus Society may have been one of five branches of the Heaven Earth Society which formed at the Shaolin Monastery from Ming loyalists. The Five Branches, known by some as the "Five Ancestors", were the Black, Red, White, Yellow and Green Lodges. After there was no longer any need for the triads on the battlefield, some high-level military leaders resorted to criminal activity in order to find means of survival.

發展

南宋

茅子元是天台宗門下的弟子，崇慕慧遠白蓮社之遺風，又受天台宗派觀念的影響，因而改造了興于民間，成員關係鬆散的在家佛教「蓮社」，在庶民中組織起一有師承、有教義，倡導念佛往生的社團。這個團體有出家弘法的僧人，也有在家信徒；並且，為使教法更普及於大眾，白蓮宗允許在家弟子從事吸納門徒、宣傳教法、化緣建佛堂等，按佛教傳統只能由僧人進行的活動，這樣便形成了僧、俗兩個傳法系統。這一組織架構是白蓮宗最大的特色，但也與佛教的傳統相對立，在實踐中產生了種種弊端，因此被佛教界所非議。

白蓮宗不殺生、不飲酒，禁食蔥乳，嚴守護生之戒，因此宗徒號稱「白蓮菜」，又稱「茹茅闍梨菜」。外人則稱之為「喫菜事魔」。茅子元去世後，有小茅闍梨繼承茅子元之教，使之盛行南方，由于出家僧眾對在家俗眾並無強制約束力，對冒稱白蓮道人觸犯刑法者，亦無從管制，又混雜民間信仰，因而日久漸生風俗壞亂之弊，「庶俗僭稱活佛如來，婦人擅號佛母大士」，妄談般若，亂說災祥。因此常被取締。也因此流傳不廣，故影響不大。

而後，在教義上，白蓮宗受到彌勒教影響，從崇奉極樂世界的阿彌陀佛改信奉兜率內院的「當來下生娑婆世界」的彌勒佛，以淨土宗的譬喻「火中生白蓮」為象徵，並混合了明教的內容。

元朝

白蓮宗以彌勒佛將會來救世的傳說，作為號召，動輒宣稱彌勒佛下生，起兵造反，自然也開始反抗元朝統治。元世祖至元十七年（1280年）春，江西都昌縣杜萬一（又名杜可用）號稱「杜聖人」，以白蓮宗組織發動起事，後自稱「天王」，改元「萬乘」。這是白蓮宗誕生後策動的第一次民變；但因為白蓮宗與白蓮教在歷史上界定區分並不明確，因此也被認為是白蓮教第一次民變。

元武宗至大元年（1308年），因皇帝認為此等人物「有妻子，身已不清淨」，敕禁白蓮社。時有廬山東林寺普度（？—1330年），自承慧遠留下的千年正教，致力于複教運動，撰寫《廬山蓮宗寶鑑》10卷，闡明了子元所倡白蓮宗的真義，上奏朝廷。于是白蓮宗于元仁宗皇慶元年（1312年）得以複教。普度受命為教主，世稱優曇宗主。在宗教政策寬鬆白蓮教可以公開傳播時期，白蓮教宣揚「彌勒佛下生」、「明王出世」，其勢力滲透到河南、江淮和長江流域地區。但是，宗門的情弊仍未改善，複有社會反對分子潛入，故元英宗至治二年（1322年）後又遭禁斷。

此後該教的僧人漸漸遠離「白蓮宗」的名號，回歸到正統佛教當中，而民間仍在繼續流傳，並進一步與彌勒教、白雲教、明教等相混合，稱為白蓮教，成為民間秘密宗教。泰定二年（1325年），河南息州白蓮教趙醜廝、郭菩薩宣傳「彌勒佛當有天下」，聚眾起事。元順帝至元三年（1337年），河南陳州白蓮教胡閏兒（棒胡）稱彌勒佛已經降生，聚眾燒香起事。順帝至元四年（1338年），江西袁州彭瑩玉、周子旺組織白蓮教起事。

順帝至正十一年（1351年），元朝政府強徵民夫堵塞黃河缺口，引發了全國規模的紅巾軍大起義，紅巾軍即與白蓮教有密切的關係，元末朱元璋依附「明教」起義，宣稱「黑暗即將過去，光明將要到來」，其實也受到白蓮教影響。至此，彌勒教正式融入白蓮教。

明朝

元朝末年紅巾軍領袖，韓山童父子便是以家傳白蓮教聚眾起事，宣傳口號為「彌勒降生」、「明王出世」。後朱元璋亦以「明」為國號。朱元璋成為皇帝之後，知道白蓮教會對其帝國構成威脅，納李善長之議，多次取締白蓮教，《大明律》規定「為首者絞，從者各杖一百，流三千里。」明成祖永樂十八年二月（1420年）山東白蓮教女教首唐賽兒發動起義，旋即失敗。

成化十八年（1482年），山東即墨軍人羅思孚在北直隸創立了羅教，提倡「真空家鄉，無生父母」的教義，認為人終究必須回到「無生父母」的身邊，而「無生父母」成為最高階的主神。「無生父母」此一概念，演變為惟一的神「無生老母」，無生老母為白蓮教等等教派所接受，幾乎皆以「無生老母」為主神，並有三教合流的姿態，宣揚「無生老母」將派遣彌勒佛下凡拯救世人。

萬曆年間，有所謂的聞香教，「薊州人王森得妖狐異香，倡白蓮教，自稱聞香教主。其徒有大小傳頭及會主諸號，蔓延畿輔、山東、山西、河南、陝西、四川。森居灤州石佛座，徒黨輸金錢稱朝貢，飛竹籌報機事，一日數千里。……四十二年，森復為有司所攝。越五歲，斃於獄。」 王森伏誅後，信徒山東巨野的徐鴻儒、北直武邑的于弘志分別發動武裝叛亂，均遭明朝鎮壓。

萬曆十五年（1587年），都察院左都御史辛自修奏：「白蓮教、無為教、羅教，蔓引株連，流傳愈廣，蹤跡詭秘。北直隸、山東、河南頗眾。」，萬曆二十五年刑部侍郎呂坤奏稱：「白蓮結社，遍及四方，教主傳頭，所在成聚。倘有招呼之首，此其歸附之人。」 萬曆四十三年，白蓮教發展至高峰，「近日妖僧流道聚眾談經，醵錢輪會。一名涅槃教，一名紅封教，一名老子教。又有羅祖教、南無教、淨空教、悟明教、大成無為教，皆諱白蓮之名」。

清朝

清兵入關統一中國後，白蓮教又與許多民間宗教融合，如老官齋、八卦教，其名目繁多，加上舊有支派，竟高達百餘種，教義更加蕪雜。清朝的白蓮教徒以反抗為己任，倡言「日月復來」，舉起反清複明的旗幟，從而遭到清朝鎮壓。

清順治、康熙、雍正、乾隆時期，白蓮教活動頻繁。到了乾隆後期，清朝國力開始下降，是白蓮教鼎盛時期，在東北和南方各省廣泛流行，其中又以大乘教流行最廣。乾隆三十九年（1774年）清水教徒王倫聚眾起義。

嘉慶年間白蓮教與地方人民結合，引發川楚教亂頗傷清朝國力，之後在嘉慶十八年 (1813年) 發生的天理教之亂是最後一次白蓮教名義的叛亂，之後逐漸消失於歷史。

光緒二十四年（1898年），山東義和團之扶清滅洋運動的主要團隊、有部分追溯起源於白蓮教的分支派八卦教。

影響

• 直到近代，白蓮教仍未消失，但已發生質變現象。根據清末學者勞乃宣考證，義和團起源於白蓮教。但義和團的信仰主要為中國主流文化的宗教信仰，如義和團提出的保「華教」、反「洋教」，華教主要是尊孔教、講人倫、祀祖宗、尊玉皇、拜關帝、誦觀音、念彌陀等這些民間主流的三教合流信仰，但偏激極端，並不全然同於白蓮教。但不可否認，包括義和團在內的許多民間宗教與團體，都與白蓮教息息相關，他們有著相似的信仰及傳說，通常以「無生老母」為主神，以彌勒佛救世為號召。

• 白蓮教在民間流傳盛廣，出現許多英雄人物，在《聊齋誌異》故事裏也有反映。

• 白蓮教思想也與後代的許多宗教有淵源關係，如羅教（尊明朝北直隸密雲縣軍人羅思孚為始祖）、齋教（亦尊羅思孚為始祖）、在理教（尊清初燕京白雲觀道人楊來如為始祖）等。