生平

早期经历

吴三桂出生于1612年6月8日。吴三桂少年英挺，善骑射，吴伟业说他「白皙通侯最少年」，成名于十八岁，其父吴襄带领五百名士兵出锦州城巡逻，被皇太极的数万大军重重包围，祖大寿与吴三桂登上城楼观战，大寿以城内兵少不肯出兵相救，三桂竟率二十多名家丁将其父吴襄救出重围。皇太极说：「吾家若得此人，何忧天下？」

镇守山海关

崇祯四年（1631年）八月，皇太极发动「大淩河之役」，吴襄在赴援时逃亡，导致全军覆灭，祖大寿弃城奔锦州，孙承宗罢去，吴襄下狱，乃擢吴三桂为总兵。

史载吴三桂部「胆勇倍奋，士气益鼓」。三桂治军严谨，精锐骑兵一千人，分二十队，五十人一队，每队设一领骑官，吴三桂在自己的靴筒上放这二十名领骑官姓名，一旦抽中谁，便呼叫某领骑官，该领骑官即统五十人骑队，跟随他冲锋陷阵，可谓「无往不利」，是明末最后一支有战力的铁骑部队。松锦之战爆发，明军陷入绝境，吴三桂用蒙古降人之计，决定从大路突围，直奔杏山城。成为当时少数突围成功的明军。皇太极见状赞叹：「吴三桂果是汉子！得此人归降，天下唾手可得矣。」

崇祯十七年（顺治元年、1644年）三月初，李自成破大同、真定，「京师为之震动」，初四日，崇祯决定放弃关外，任吴三桂为平西伯，飞檄三桂入卫京师，起用吴襄提督京营。崇祯十七年（1644年），吴三桂奉旨入卫首都北京，三月十六抵山海关，一路上「迁延不急行，简阅步骑」，三月二十抵达河北丰润时，李自成领导的大顺军已进入北京，崇祯自缢景山（煤山），三桂则引兵退保山海关。

引清兵入关

李自成曾多次招降吴三桂，吴三桂再三犹豫，曾一度有投降李自成的念头。据传说其爱妾陈圆圆被李自成部下掳去而作罢。两面受敌的吴三桂，对内不敌李自成，对外难挡多尔衮。陈圆圆和吴家亲人都成了李自成的人质。为保全家人性命，吴答应与李自成议和，为防李自成有诈，又私下以黄河南北分治为条件，向多尔衮求助。多尔衮覆信吴三桂，许诺封他为清朝「平西王」，变合作关系为受降关系。

而在京的李自成，因害怕清兵入关，决定「灭吴保关」，于是发兵二十馀万，四月十三，由李自成亲率大军，奔赴山海关攻讨吴三桂。四月廿二，吴军初败，吴三桂求救于多尔衮，多尔衮将计就计，趁吴三桂与李自成谈判之机，突然向李自成发动攻击。李自成却以为上了吴三桂的当，他认定吴三桂「引狼入室」，于是杀了吴三桂的全家。吴三桂在「一片石战役」中，联合清军击溃李自成。清军入关后，攻入北京，多尔衮把年幼的清世祖以及朝廷由东北的盛京迁都至北京，封吴三桂为「平西王」。

从西北到西南

顺治二年（1645年）八月，在李自成主力基本被消灭之后，清政府将其从前线调回，出镇锦州。顺治四年（1647年），清政府又调吴三桂入关，与八旗将领李国翰同镇汉中，受到李国翰的监视。其间剿灭李自成、张献忠及明朝馀部。

顺治六年（1649年）挥军北上，平定随山西姜镶叛乱的，在陕西之叛军。

顺治八年（1651年），吴三桂和李国翰一起率军入川，攻打大西军馀部，于川北保宁府击败大西军统帅刘文秀部，平定成都、重庆，之后退守保宁一带。

顺治十五年（1658年），吴三桂以平西大将军职，自重庆入贵州，汇合当时已攻克贵阳的洪承畴，攻打南明最后一个政权桂王永历政权。同年李国翰病死，吴三桂得以依靠降军大力扩张自己的兵力。

顺治十六年（1659年），吴三桂攻下云南，开藩设府，镇守云南，总管军民事务。南明最后一位皇帝永历帝逃入缅甸。

顺治十七年（1660年），清廷以赋税不足为由，命令吴三桂裁军，吴三桂将绿营及投诚兵，从六万人减少至二万四千人。

顺治十八年（1661年），吴三桂出兵缅甸，逼迫缅甸国王莽达交出永历帝朱由榔。五月二十二日，莽达之弟莽白乘机发动政变，杀死其兄后继位。七月十九日，莽白诱骗朱由榔身边大小官员及侍卫、内官等前往者梗的睹波焰塔饮咒水盟誓，却发兵杀尽侍卫、软禁朱由榔，是为咒水之难。十二月初一日，清军迫近缅甸首都阿瓦，莽白将朱由榔献给吴三桂，押回云南昆明。

康熙元年（1662年），吴三桂诏进平西亲王，兼辖贵州。同年四月在昆明以弓弦处绞朱由榔及其子。

起兵叛乱

康熙十二年（1673年），康熙帝玄烨商议撤藩，吴三桂心不安，以反清复明为号召，于同年十二月处决云南巡抚朱国治，自称周王，以「大明天下都招讨兵马大元帅」之名义起兵反清，平南王世子尚之信、靖南王耿精忠、广西将军孙延龄、陕西提督王辅臣、察哈尔亲王布尔尼、延平郡王郑经等人先后响应，史称三藩之乱。燕京杨起隆自称「朱三太子」，率领八旗旗下家奴四处纵火，藉机起事，被都统图海、祖承烈等人迅速围捕。杨起隆突围逃走，其党羽数十人被抓。

吴三桂大军初时势如破竹，贵州巡抚曹申吉、提督李本深、云南提督张国柱等人立刻响应，总督甘文焜被叛军所害，吴军兵不血刃取得云贵全境。吴三桂派遣大将王屏藩攻蜀，以马宝为先锋攻占湖南沅州。次年（1674年），张国柱、夏国相、龚应麟等相继攻入湖南各地，清湖南提督桑额败走宜昌、湖南巡抚卢震放弃长沙，巴尔布、硕岱、珠满等人固守荆州，不敢出战，湖南大部份郡县落入吴军之手。清四川巡抚罗森、提督郑蛟麟、总兵谭洪、吴之茂，广西将军孙延龄、提督马雄，襄阳总兵杨来嘉皆举兵响应。

三月，耿精忠占据福建、囚禁福建总督范承谟，以呼应吴三桂。耿精忠自称「大明总统兵马大将军」，蓄发易服，以都统马九玉为中路攻浙江金华等地、总兵白显忠为西路攻江西饶州等地、曾养性为东路攻打绍兴等地，三路大军北伐，攻陷浙江、江西大部分地区。

清朝接连丢失云、贵、桂、蜀、湘、闽、秦、陇等八个行省，又丧失浙、赣大部，人心浮动，军无守志。吴三桂亲赴湖南督战，一时声势显赫。然而吴三桂害怕质子吴应熊被清廷正法，下令诸将停止北进，并委托西藏达赖五世到京师与清廷和谈。达赖提议清廷割地以息兵端，被康熙帝拒绝。

去世

康熙十三年（1674年）春，吴三桂攻陷湖南之后在岳州一带为清军所阻，形势逐渐不利。康熙十四年（1675年）四月十三日，吴三桂的儿孙吴应熊、吴世霖被清廷绞死。康熙十六年（1677年），尚之信、耿精忠、王辅臣先后投降清军，吴三桂失去广东、福建以及陕西外援，又失江西。清军连陷湖南浏阳、平江，招降吴军水师主将林兴珠于湘潭，湖南东北部已在清廷掌控之中。

康熙十七年（1678年）正月，康熙帝谕议政王等曰：「逆贼吴三桂等背恩倡乱荼毒生灵扰乱疆宇，朕念切除凶志安民社仁育义正恩威并行，大将军等既承简任当励忠贞之谊早奏戡定之勋，以副朕爱民至意」。

康熙十七年（1678年）三月，吴三桂为了振奋军心，在湖南衡阳登基称帝，国号为周，建元昭武，立妻子张氏为皇后。同年八月在长沙病逝，享年67岁。郭壮图拥立吴三桂之孙吴世璠继位，追尊吴三桂为太祖高皇帝，吴应熊为孝恭皇帝。康熙二十年（1681年）十月，清廷最终攻陷昆明，其孙吴世璠自杀，历时八年的三藩之乱结束。

清朝张茂稷《读史偶感》：「李陵心事久风尘，三十年来讵卧薪？复楚未能先覆楚，帝秦何必又亡秦。丹心早为红颜改，青史难宽白发人。永夜角声应不寐，那堪思子又思亲。」

家庭

妻妾

• 张皇后

• 妾陈圆圆等多人，失考。

• 八面观音

• 四面观音

兄弟

• 兄吴三凤，曾为祖大寿部将，后留守吴氏在辽西中后所的祖坟音讯皆无。

• 弟吴三辅，曾为祖大寿部将，后在京师被李自成所杀。

• 从弟吴三枚，在昆明城广招门徒，很有势力。

子女

• 吴应熊

• 侄子吴应期，又名吴应麒，吴三桂待之如子。1680年在云南试图发动政变取代吴世璠，被识破后缢杀。

• 另有幼子数人，失考。

• 女六人，分别嫁胡国柱、夏国相、郭壮图、卫朴、王永宁，一人失考。据李朝实录，吴三桂有一女嫁苏克萨哈之子。

孙子

• 吴世霖，1675年与吴应熊一起被处死。

• 吴世璠，1678年成为大周皇帝，1681年兵败自杀。

• 孙女，吴应熊之女，奉国将军噶尔图嫡妻。

• 孙女，吴应熊之女，和硕恭亲王常颖之妾，生常颖第六子文殊保。

• 侄孙吴世琮，1677年诱杀广西将军孙延龄，1679年败亡。

有孙女被蔡毓荣隐藏为妾。

吴三桂与《圆圆曲》

吴三桂降清后，汉族文人对之讽刺不绝，其中最著名的莫过于吴伟业（号梅村）所写的《圆圆曲》。

由于世人将吴三桂变节归咎于其爱妾陈圆圆被掳，令吴三桂为夺回陈氏而与满人勾结，诗人吴梅村以西施讽今，谱下七言长诗《圆圆曲》，指出陈圆圆无一丝损害国家之举，责任应在吴三桂，抨击了他「冲冠一怒为红颜」的举动。

虽然晚清名家王国维比较〈圆圆曲〉与唐代诗人白居易之长恨歌时认为前者不若白氏之平白，境界逊后者一筹。然无可否认，吴伟业能将西施与陈圆圆之际遇融合得丝丝入扣。但最令吴三桂介怀的却是诗中中段几句与西施无关，矛头直指吴三桂的诗句：

据说吴三桂曾出重金希望吴梅村删改上述几句，然为吴梅村所拒绝。

评价

清初许多汉族知识分子因为厌恶满清政权的异族统治，痛恨作为汉人的吴三桂与满清勾结，导致大顺政权及南明政权等汉人政权的覆亡，加上曾杀死永历帝等明朝皇族和大臣等，斥责他为「汉奸」。吴三桂也成了「汉奸」的代名词。

影视形象

参考

• 顺治二年文秉《烈皇小识》曰：「先是三桂闻京师失守，先帝殉难，统众入关投降。而三桂父吴襄，故辽东总兵也，逆闯李自成执襄诛求金宝，索诈甚酷，三桂知之，即时追师出关。道清摄政王统兵将入大同，中途相遇，三桂即剃发诣营，叩首诉冤，愿假大兵复仇，砍血立誓。」

• 史可法，《史忠正公祭》：「先国雠之大，而特释前嫌，借兵力之强，而尽歼丑类」

• 南京殉节的夏允彝，《幸存录》：「三桂少年，勇冠三军，边帅莫之及。闯寇所以诱至之者甚至，三桂终不从。都城已破，以杀寇自矢，包胥复楚，三桂无愧焉。包胥借秦兵而获存楚社，三桂借清兵而清兵遂得我中华，岂三桂罪哉？所遭之不幸耳。」

• 谈迁《国榷》曰：「兵三桂之乞援建州，非其意也。建州告警在正月，又字远内徙，边藩尽撤，建州捣虚无疑矣。三桂内絓贼寇，外怵建人，权其两害，势必东款以击寇，而三桂孤矣。当时王永吉辈舍蓟辽之师，稍张其翼，三桂当未失路至此。呜呼！仆固怀恩以回纥靖安史之乱，桑维翰以契丹灭唐，虽挠败踵至，而两京收复自如也，石晋初造亦自如也；皆先有成约，输币割地，得支吾目前。三桂孤旅，又无一人佐其谋，前门驱虎，后户进狼，至不暇顾，惜哉。」

• 康熙十年计六奇《明季北略》：「吴三桂欲倡义复仇，以众寡不敌，遂亲往大清国请兵十万，为朝廷雪耻。大清不允，三桂力恳。大清曰：『明朝文武数无信义，将军欲建大功，本国何难发兵助阵，恐成功之后，不知将置身何地耳。』三桂曰 ：『桂父子受朝廷厚恩，今日为巨寇弑逆，士庶伤心，神人共愤，桂闻勇士不怯死而灭名，忠臣不先家而后国，今君后俱遭惨弑，桂食君之禄，焉有坐视之理。如必计成败而后行，是有觊觎于衷也。桂今日誓死报国，虽肝脑涂地，亦所不辞，安问其他。』大清主曰：『将军姑退，明日再议。』明日，三桂拔发挂孝，复进谒大清主，痛哭哀恳。大清主遂发兵。」

• 康熙二十二年梅村野史《鹿樵纪闻》，卷下，〈西平乞师〉云：「贼据京师，刘宗敏居（田）弘遇故第，因有誉二姬（陈圆、顾寿）色之都、枝之绝者，宗敏于是系襄索圆。三桂闻之，即还兵据山海关，刑牲盟众，誓兴复明室。报至京师，白成切责宗敏，立释襄，厚加抚慰，使作书谕三桂；三桂不从。当是时，国朝闻明都之变，方议入讨；而三桂兵少，自揣其力不足以办贼，遣使因故帅祖大寿来乞师。」

• 三藩之乱后钱轵《甲申传信录》：「三桂妾圆圆绝世所稀，白成知之。索于（吴）勷，且籍其家，而命其作书以招子也，剿从命，闯旋以银四万两犒三桂军。三桂大喜，忻然受命，入山海关而纳款焉。行已入关矣，吴剿妾某氏素通家人系，闯籍其家，家人即挈妾逃。仓皇出郭，行数日，竟不暇计南北也。二人猝遇三桂，计无出，诈曰，告变。三桂问曰 ：『吾家无恙乎？』曰：『阅籍之矣。』『吾父无恙乎？』曰：『闯籍之家，并拘执矣。』三桂沈吟久之。厉声问曰：『我那人亦无恙？』指圆圆也。曰：『贼夺之。』于是，三桂大怒，嗔目而呼曰：『大大夫不能保一女子，有何颜面？」勒马出关，洪意致死于贼。遂召均史、策士卒，誓众，以报君父仇乌辞。三桂意气悲壮，居然有与贼不共戴天之雠。一军皆叹曰：『吾帅忠孝人也！」将守胡亮素通满语，乃献借兵之策。守亮即入满营，见九王（多尔衮），王许之，下令去兵相见。三桂见王，声与泪俱下，侃侃千百言。王义之，即以王呼三桂曰：『吴王真明朝大忠孝人也！』三桂即萝发，阅数日，整师南行。」

• 乾隆朝官修《逆臣传》采用，曰：「（陈沅）为贼将刘宗敏掠去。三桂闻之，作书绝父，驰归山海关，遣副将杨昆、游击郭云龙来我朝借师」，遂成为官方、士林定论。相对明遗民及三藩之乱后清廷，吴三桂的评价作两极化。

• 崇祯十二年十月二十九日，《兵部等部为推补吴三桂任团练辽东总兵员缺事题行稿》，「吴三桂。年三十二岁。系辽东前屯千户卫」

注释

Early years

Wu was born in Gaoyou, Jiangsu province, in southeastern China, to Wu Xiang and Lady Zu. His ancestral home was Gaoyou. Wu Sangui's father and uncle had fought in many battles. Under this influence, Wu was shaped by war at an early age and took great interest in war and politics.

In his early years, Wu was a student of the artist Dong Qichang. It was this primarily Confucian education that cultivated Wu's scholarliness, resourcefulness, and imposing appearance.

In 1627, the Chongzhen Emperor decided to reinstate the imperial examination system on his accession to the throne, and Wu became a first-degree military scholar (juren) at the age of fifteen. He and his two brothers joined the army and served as generals garrisoning the Daling River and Ningyuan in the army of general Zu Dashou.

In 1630, while gathering information about the enemy, Wu's father, Wu Xiang, was encircled by tens of thousands of Qing troops. Wu was denied help from his maternal uncle, Zu Dashou, and so decided to rescue his father with a force of about 20 soldiers chosen from his personal retinue. The Manchus being bewildered by the small Ming cavalry force, Wu Sangui and his men charged into the enemy encirclement, killed the Manchu general and saved Wu Xiang. Both Hong Taiji and Zu Dashou were impressed by Wu's valour, and Zu Dashou recommended Wu's promotion. Wu Sangui gained the position of guerrilla general when he was no older than 20.

Service under the Ming dynasty

Garrisoning Liaodong

In 1632, the Ming court transferred the Liaodong army to Shandong, to defeat the rebel armies of Kong Youde. Wu, who was 22 years old at that time, served as a guerrilla general and fought side by side with his father, Wu Xiang. Wu rose to the rank of deputy general and was promoted to full general in September of that year. In September 1638, Wu served as a deputy general again.

At the beginning of 1639, as the situation in Liaodong became increasingly tense, the Ming court transferred general Hong Chengchou as the governor-general (总督 Zǒngdū|w=) of Jiliao; Hong appointed Wu as the general in charge of training.

In October 1639, a Qing army of more than 10,000 men, commanded by Duoduo and Haoge, invaded Ningyuan. Jin Guofeng, full general of Ningyuan, immediately led troops to confront the Qing army but was surrounded and killed. Wu took Jin's place as full general of Ningyuan, and became a guardian general of Liaodong.

After Wu served as the full general in Ningyuan, he made the local army the strongest in Liaodong, having 20,000 troops at Ningyuan town. To enhance their combat power, Wu selected 1,000 elite soldiers to form a fearless battalion. The battalion was trained and commanded by Wu himself, making these men his bodyguard who would come at Wu's call at any time. They were the core of his army and laid the foundation for Wu's military achievements.

In March 1640, Hong Taiji appointed Jirgalang and Duoduo as left and right commander, respectively, marching towards the north of Jinzhou. Aiming to besiege Jinzhou, they reestablished Yizhou, garrisoned the troops, opened up wasteland, grew food grain, and forbade any cultivation in the Ningjin area outside Shanhai Pass.

Battle of Xingshan

On 18 May 1640, Wu Sangui met the Qing army in battle at Xingshan. Jirgalang led 1,500 soldiers to accept the surrender of the Mongolian people, but they were spotted by general Liu Zhaoji when passing the Ming army. Liu Zhaoji led 3,000 soldiers against the Qing army. At that time, Wu Sangui was stationed in Songshan and brought a 3,000-strong force the moment he heard the news. From Jinzhou, Zu Dashou sent more than 700 soldiers as a reserve. At first, the Ming army seemed more powerful with superior numbers; but, after the pursuit of Jiamashan, the Qing army was able to surround Wu Sangui.

Wu Sangui was unable to withstand the repeated attacks from both Jirgalang and Duoduo. He fought a bloody battle with the Qing army, but could not break through the siege until Liu Zhaoji came to his rescue. The Ming army casualties were more than 1000, with deputy general Yanglun and Zhou Yanzhou dead, but Wu Sangui's bravery was still praised.

Battle of Songjin

On 25 April 1641, the battle of Songjin began with an attack by the Ming army, Wu Sangui leading and personally killing ten enemies, defeating the Qing cavalry. After the battle, Wu Sangui was regarded as its most outstanding general.

In June 1641, Hong Chengchou and Wu Sangui returned to Songshan and garrisoned the northwest area. Prince Zheng Jirgalang attacked several times towards Songshan and Xinshan but was defeated repeatedly, the Ming army succeeding in surrounding the Qing army four times. Though the Qing army finally broke through the encirclement, their casualties were very high. Due to Wu Sangui's bravery, the Ming army remained on the offensive, but it also paid a heavy price.

On 20 August 1641, the Ming army attacked the Qing camp. The battle lasted the whole day, and the result was too close to call. However, Prince Ajige unexpectedly captured the Ming army's provisions in Bijia Mountain, significantly undermining their ability to fight. The battle continued on 21 August, and was unfavourable to the Ming army. After this defeat Datong full general Wang Pu lost the will to fight. Before Hong Chengchou issued orders, Wang fled with his troops, which completely disrupted the original breakthrough plan. More surprisingly, Wu Sangui also fled in the chaos, escaping on Wang's heel. At such a life-or-death moment, Wu revealed selfishness.

The Ming army attempted to withdraw, pursued by the Qing. In a matter of a few days, more than 53,000 people and 7,400 horses of the Ming army were killed. They had no way to flee and no will to fight. Only 30,000 survived after fleeing back to Ningyuan.

Wu Sangui survived not only by following Wang Pu, but by having a good retreat plan. When Hong Chengchou ordered the breakthrough, Wu Sangui went back to his camp and immediately discussed tactics with his generals. They decided to give up the small path and flee on the main road. As expected, the Qing army had only cut off the small path, while no more than 400 soldiers held the main road under Hong Taiji. Seeing Wu Sangui's fierce charge, Hong Taiji restrained his army from pursuing. Hong thought highly of Wu, and considered gaining his favor as the key to conquering the dynasty.

The breakthrough at Songshan resulted in the deaths of 52,000 members of the Ming elite army, which greatly wounded the Ming dynasty. Wu and Wang Pu could not escape the fate of being punished for fleeing and avoiding combat and were sentenced to death.

Promotion after the defeat

A few days later, Wu, who had fled to Ningyuan, received the imperial decree of the Chongzhen emperor. Surprisingly, Wu was promoted above all the full generals. This implied that Wu would not be punished, which was beyond the comprehension of many government officials. Even more surprising was the fact that, months later, when someone in the court called for an investigation to determine responsibility for the Songshan defeat, only Wang Pu was arrested while Wu continued to serve as a governor general of Liaodong, garrisoned in Ningyuan. This caused an outcry in the Ming court.

In May 1642, the result of the Ming court's re-examination was the death penalty for Wang Pu, and demotion of three levels in rank for Wu. Wu continued to serve as full general in Ningyuan and was in charge of the training of the Liaodong army.

Defection to the Qing

Surrender to the Qing dynasty

By February 1642, the Ming Dynasty had lost four of the eight vital cities beyond the Shanhaiguan Pass to the Manchu army. Ningyuan, where Wu was stationed, became Beijing's last defence against the Manchu army. Hong Taiji repeatedly attempted to persuade Wu to surrender, to no avail. Wu did not side with the Qing Dynasty until after the defensive capability of the Ming Dynasty had been greatly weakened with its political apparatus destroyed by the rebel armies of Li Zicheng's Shun dynasty.

In early 1644, Li Zicheng, the head of a peasant rebel army, launched his force from Xi'an for his final offensive northeast toward Beijing. The Chongzhen Emperor decided to abandon Ningyuan and called upon Wu to defend Beijing against the rebels. Wu Sangui received the title Pingxi Bo (平西伯 Píng xībó|l=Count who pacifies the West) as he moved to face the peasant army.

At the time of Beijing's fall to Li Zicheng, on 25 April 1644, Wu and his 40,000-man army—the most significant Ming fighting force in northern China—were on the way to Beijing to come to the Chongzhen Emperor's aid but then received word of the emperor's suicide. So they garrisoned the Shanhai Pass, the eastern terminus of the main Great Wall instead. Wu and his men were then caught between the rebels within the Great Wall and the Manchus without.

After the collapse of the Ming dynasty, Wu and his army became a vital military force in deciding the fate of China. Both Dorgon and Li Zicheng tried to gain Wu's support. Li Zicheng took a number of measures to secure Wu's surrender, granting silver, gold, a dukedom, and most crucially by capturing Wu's father Wu Xiang, ordering the latter to write a letter to persuade Wu to pledge allegiance to Li.

At first, Wu intended to surrender to Li Zicheng, but when he heard of the predatory behaviour of Li's army and his father's captivity, he changed his plans. Instead, he killed Li's envoy. To save the life of his family, he wrote back to his father scolding him for his disloyalty and claiming to be breaking relations with his father. Furthermore, he sent several generals to pretend to pledge allegiance to Li. He knew that his force alone was insufficient to fight Li's main army. He wrote to Dorgon for military support, under the condition of restricting the dominance of Ming and Manchus to southern and northern China, respectively, claiming to resume the Ming Dynasty. The Manchu prince-regent Dorgon determined that this was an opportunity to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing. Dorgon made clear in his reply that the Manchus would help Wu, but Wu would have to submit to the Qing. Wu did not accept at first.

Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass, but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 and 10 May 1644. In order to secure his position, Li was determined to destroy Wu's army. On 18 May, he personally led 60,000 troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. and defeated Wu on 21 May. The next day, Wu wrote to Dorgon for help. Dorgon took the opportunity to force Wu to surrender, and Wu had little choice but to accept. On 22 May 1644, Wu opened the gates of the Great Wall of China at Shanhai Pass to let Qing forces into China proper, forming an alliance with the Manchus. Wu ordered his soldiers to wear white cloths attached to their armour, to distinguish them from Li Zicheng's forces. Together, Wu's army and the Qing forces defeated the Shun rebels in the Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May 1644. Having defeated Li's main army, the Qing marched into Beijing unopposed and enthroned the young Shunzhi Emperor in the Forbidden City. Wu pledged allegiance to the Qing dynasty.

Suppressing the rebellion in Shanxi

Wu Sangui surrendered to the Qing dynasty and received the title of Pingxi Wang (平西王 Píngxī wáng|l=Prince who pacifies the West). However, he remained fearful that the Qing dynasty held him in suspicion.

In October 1644, Wu received orders to suppress the rebel peasant army. At that time, Li Zicheng still held Shanxi, Hubei, Henan, and other areas, and was gathering his troops to rise again. Wu, together with Shang Kexi, led his soldiers to Shanxi against the rebel army under Ajige, the General of Jingyuan appointed by the prince regent Dorgon. From October to the following August, when he returned to Beijing, Wu fought the peasant army and achieved great success.

Li Zicheng held a grudge against Wu for his faithlessness, so he executed thirty-eight members of the Wu household, including Wu's father, whose head was displayed on the city wall. Enraged, Wu hardened his resolve to resist the new regime and defeated the Shun vanguard led by Tang Tong on 3 and 10 May. In June 1645, Wu Sangui captured Yulin and Yan'an. At the same time Li Zicheng was killed by a village head in Tongshan county, Hubei Province.

In 1645, the Qing court rewarded Wu Sangui with the title of Qin Wang (亲王 Qīnwáng|l=Prince of the Blood) and ordered him to garrison Jinzhou. The high-sounding title was belied by transferring Wu to Jinzhou, which had lost its position as a militarily important town and become an insignificant rear area. Moreover, along with a large number of Manchu and Han people migrating into central China, it had become sparsely populated and desolate. Hence, Wu felt perplexed and upset.

On 19 August 1645, before Wu returned to Liaodong from Beijing, he submitted his request to the Qing imperial court to renounce his title as Qin Wang (Prince). After giving up his title, he began to make efforts to consolidate his strength by demanding troops, territory, compensation, and reward for the generals under his command, which were all granted by the imperial court.

In July 1646, when Wu Sangui was summoned by the emperor, the Qing court granted him a total of 10 horses and 20,000 pieces of silver as an extra reward. Wu wasn't pleased, however, since he had been set aside since his return to Jinzhou, while the army of Kong Youde, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Kexi had been fighting against the South Ming Dynasty in Hunan and Guangxi since 1646.

Suppressing the rebellion in Sichuan

In 1648, the rebellion against the Qing dynasty reached its climax. In the west, Jiang Xiang, the full general of Datong, waged an insurgency in Shanxi, while, in the south, in Nanchang and Guangzhou, Jin Shenghuan and Li Chengdong also rebelled, which dramatically changed the military situation.

The rebellion from the surrendered Han generals greatly shocked the Qing dynasty rulers. They came to realize the significance role of these conquered generals to the control of central China, as well as the importance of the strategy of "using Han to rule Han" (以汉制汉). In this situation, Wu thrived again.

At the beginning of 1648, the Qing imperial court ordered Wu to move his family west and garrison Hanzhong as Pingxi Wang with Chief General (Du Tong) of the Eight Banners Moergen and Li Weihan. In less than one year, Wu suppressed the rebellion in most regions of Shanxi and reversed the situation in the northwest. After that, Wu, charging at the head of his troops in every battle, proved his loyalty to the Qing dynasty. After four years of struggle, peace came to Shaanxi province. Wu was praised for his contribution by the Qing imperial court, and his status rose.

In 1652, the rebel Daxi army became the main force rebelling against the Qing. The situation was made difficult by the deaths of the Qing generals Kong Youde and Ni Kan, when the rebels Li Dingguo and Liu Wenxiu's troop marched into Sichuan. The Qing imperial court then summoned Wu to suppress the Daxi army in Sichuan. However, Wu Sangui was being closely watched by general Li Guohan, a trusted advisor to the imperial court. Wu wasn't able to free himself from surveillance until a few years later, when Li Guohan died. Hence, Wu enhanced his military strength rapidly by gaining a large number of enemy surrenders.

Garrisoning Yunnan

In 1660, the Qing army split into three parts, marched into Yunnan province, and eliminated the South Ming Dynasty, thus achieving the preliminary unification of the mainland. Nevertheless, the imperial court still faced a number of serious military and political threats. The Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty and Li Dingguo of the Daxi army retreated to Burma, and they maintained influence in Yunnan. It was inconvenient for the Eight Banners soldiers to garrison the Yunnan Guizhou border area, which was far away from the capital. As a result, the imperial court could only approve the proposal by Hong Chengchou to withdraw those soldiers, and give Wu, and his army, command of the border area. Thus, Wu not only commanded a large army but also controlled vast territory.

In 1661, the green-flag army under Wu numbered 60,000, while Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao had only 7,500 ad 7,000 soldiers in their armies. Wu planned to permanently garrison and was preparing to make the border area his own. However, Yunnan was not stable at that time, for newly surrendered soldiers had not been fully assimilated into the Qing force. Moreover, the Daxi army had been building in Yunnan over decades and shared a close relationship with various minority nationalities. Many Tusi leaders refused to accept the rule of Wu, which led to a series of rebellions. The existence of the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming dynasty and Li Dingguo's army was regarded as a great threat to Wu. Therefore, Wu was actively preparing for their elimination to consolidate his rule. He exaggerated the rebellion's threat, spread rumors. and submitted his proposal to the court, urging the invasion of Burma, which, after a time, the imperial court approved.

In June 1662, the Yongli Emperor was captured and killed, while Li Dingguo died of illness. In the next few years, Wu led his army from the northwest to the southwest border and enabled the Qing dynasty's dominance in that part of the country.

Loyalty and revolt

After he defeated the remnant Ming forces in southwestern China, Wu was rewarded by the Qing imperial court with the title of Pingxi Wang (平西王; translated as "Prince Who Pacifies the West" or "King Who Pacifies the West") with a fief in Yunnan. It had been extremely rare for someone outside of the imperial clan, especially a non-Manchu, to be granted the title of Wang. Those who were not members of the imperial clan and awarded the title were called Yixing Wang ( literally meaning "kings with other family names") or known as "vassal kings". These vassal kings usually came to a bad end, mainly because they were not trusted by the emperors.

At the end of 1662, Guizhou province came under the jurisdiction of Wu. Meanwhile, Wu's son, Wu Yingxiong (Wu Shifan's father), married Princess Jianning, the 14th daughter of the Kangxi Emperor's grandfather Hong Taiji. She was Fulin's (the Shunzhi Emperor's) sister.

The Qing imperial court did not trust Wu, but he was still able to rule Yunnan with little or no interference. This was because the Manchus, an ethnic minority, needed time after their prolonged conquest to figure out how to impose the rule of a dynasty of a tiny minority on the vast Han-Chinese society. As a semi-independent ruler in the distant southwest, Wu was seen as an asset to the Qing court. For much of his rule, he received massive annual subsidies from the central government. This money, as well as the long period of stability, was spent by Wu in building his army, in preparation for an eventual clash with the Qing dynasty.

Wu in Yunnan, along with Shang Kexi in Guangdong and Geng Jingzhong in Fujian—the three great Han military allies of the Manchus, who had pursued the rebels and the Southern Ming pretenders—became a financial burden on the central government. Their virtually autonomous control of large areas threatened the stability of the Qing dynasty. The Kangxi Emperor decided to make Wu and two other princes who had been rewarded with large fiefs in southern and western China move from their lands to resettle in Manchuria. In 1673, Shang Kexi requested permission to retire and return to his homeland in the north, and the Kangxi Emperor granted the request at once. Forced into an awkward situation, Wu and Geng Jingzhong requested the same shortly afterwards. The Kangxi Emperor granted their requests and decided to dissolve the three vassal states, overriding all objections.

Driven by the threat to their interests, the three revolted and thus began the eight-year-long civil war known as the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. Before the rebellion, Wu sent a confidant to Beijing to retrieve Wu Yingxiong, his son and the young emperor's uncle-in-law; but his son disagreed. The confidant only brought back Wu Shipan, Wu Yingxiong's son by a concubine. On 28 December 1673, Wu killed Zhu Guozhi, the governor of Yunnan, and rebelled "against the alien and rebuilding Ming dynasty". On 7 January 1674, 62-year-old Wu led troops from Yunnan on the northern expedition and took the whole territory of Guizhou province without any loss. Wu Yingxiong and his sons with Princess Jianning was executed by the Kangxi Emperor soon after his father's rebellion. Shortly afterwards, Wu founded his own Zhou dynasty. By April 1674, Wu Sangui's army had quickly occupied Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Guangxi. In the next 2 years, Geng Jingzhong, Wang Fuchen, and Shang Zhixin successively rose in rebellion, and Wu's rebellion had expanded into the Revolt of the Three Feudatories. By April 1676, the rebel force possessed 11 provinces (Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Shanxi, Gansu, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi). For a moment, the situation seemed to favor Wu.

Unexpectedly, Wu halted his march and stayed south of Yangzi river for three months because of a shortage of troops and financial resources, which gave the Kangxi emperor a chance to assemble his forces. Wang Fuchen, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin surrendered one after another under the attack of Qing forces.

In 1678, Wu Sangui went a step further and declared himself the emperor of the "Great Zhou Dynasty", with the era name of Zhaowu (昭武). He established his capital at Hengzhou (present-day Hengyang, Hunan). When he died in October 1678, his grandson, Wu Shifan, took over command of his forces and continued the struggle. The remnants of Wu's armies were defeated soon after, in December 1681, and Wu Shifan committed suicide. Wu's son-in-law was sent to Beijing with Wu Shifan's head. The Kangxi Emperor sent parts of Wu's corpse to various provinces of China.

Great Zhou Dynasty (1678–1681)

Physical appearance

Late Ming dynasty historians left behind records describing Wu Sangui as a valiant and handsome general of medium height, with pale skin, a straight nose, and big ears. However, there was an obvious scar on his nose. He was neither muscular nor particularly strong-looking. However, he demonstrated great courage and physical strength from an early age and possessed excellent skills in horse-riding and archery.

In popular culture

In contemporary China, Wu Sangui has often been regarded as a traitor and an opportunist, due to his betrayal of both the Ming and Qing dynasties. Wu's name is synonymous with betrayal (similar to the use of "Benedict Arnold" in the United States). However, more sympathetic characterizations are sometimes voiced, and it is clear that Wu's romance with and love for his concubine, Chen Yuanyuan, remains one of the classic love stories in Chinese history.

Wuxia writer Louis Cha's 1969 novel The Deer and the Cauldron portrays Wu as a powerful nemesis of the Kangxi Emperor, who sends the protagonist of the novel, Wei Xiaobao, to scout out Wu's forces in Yunnan.

Wu's early life and military career are portrayed in a more positive light in the 2003 CCTV television series The Affaire in the Swing Age, in which he is shown as being forced into making the fateful decisions that have made him infamous.